Egyptain Foreign Policy In Reg Essay Example

Egypt, to attack the Jewish population. Egyptians viewed Israel as an imperialist state and sought to defend Palestinian land and promote Arab unity. The United States' quick recognition of Israel as a state created an interesting atmosphere despite not actively providing arms or significant assistance in the war. The USSR recognized Israel to prevent the US from appearing as the champion for the newly established state. It is assumed that Egypt and other Arab nations swiftly reacted out of fear that external powers like the United States were encroaching on their territory through Israel. In this situation, Egypt acted as the primary aggressor seeking territorial acquisition, successfully achieving it through acquiring control over the Gaza Strip.Egypt's actions caused conflict in the Middle East and forced Israel to defend itself militarily. Israeli leaders viewed Egypt as a threat and treated them as an enemy. This war led to the rise of Gamal Abdul Nasser, who commanded the Egyptian Army in Palestine. Nasser formed a secret group called the Free Officers within the army and planned to overthrow the government after the war with Israel. In 1949, nine members of the Free Officers formed the Committee of the Free Officers Movement, with Nasser elected as chairman in 1950. In 1952, they orchestrated a revolution in Egypt through the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), with Muhammad Naguib as president and commander-in-chief. The RCC consisted mostly of military figures who had participated in the 1948 war, shaping their stance towards Israel and policies regarding colonial powers like Britain. While Naguib held formal leadership roles, Nasser had significant influence behind-the-scenes. Despite initial power struggles within the RCC, Nasser ultimately emerged victorious

and determined Egypt's foreign policy.During the early years, Nasser focused on internal decolonization efforts, such as removing British presence, rather than directly acting against Israel. Notably, alliances were formed to counter the Soviet Union's influence, including NATO and SEATO. The Baghdad Pact brought together several countries to establish a barrier against the USSR. Nasser only recognized Britain's importance when they refused to negotiate leaving Egypt until an alliance was agreed upon. This decision had consequences when seeking foreign aid. Seeing the conflict between Israel and Egypt as an opportunity in the Cold War, the US wanted to benefit but could not take sides yet. After Britain agreed to leave the Canal Area in 1955, Nasser believed Egypt needed to arm itself against Israel once again. However, it was actually Israel that initiated the first attack by targeting Egyptian military outposts in Gaza. Realizing his vulnerability, Nasser sought assistance from the West but was unsuccessful as neither the US nor France or Britain were willing to help.Nasser's refusal to join an anti-USSR alliance caused him to be seen as a threat, mainly by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. As a result, Nasser sought support from the USSR and accepted Soviet weapons, which strained his relationship with Western powers competing for influence in the Middle East. This decision ultimately led to Israel receiving support from the United States and Britain instead of Egypt. Despite feeling like he had no other choice, Nasser armed himself in this manner. In secret, an agreement was made between Britain, the United States, and Israel: Israel would attack the Canal through the Sinai Desert while Britain and France demanded both Egypt

and Israel withdraw from both sides of the Canal. Subsequently, an Anglo-French force would occupy it to prevent further conflict and ensure shipping accessibility. However, Israel refused to comply unless Britain and France agreed to destroy the Egyptian Air Force. British bombings successfully destroyed it, resulting in Israel occupying Sinai. The United States was angered by not being informed by its allies about the invasion and realized that they couldn't allow the Soviet Union to be viewed as defending against Western Imperialism in Third World countries. Consequently, pressure was put on Britain and France by the US to withdraw forces. While France and Britain complied with this demand, Israel hesitated to do so.Eisenhower applied considerable pressure on Israel, warning of sanctions unless they completely withdrew from their territorial acquisitions. Eventually, Israel complied but carried out a policy of destruction during their retreat. Egypt, for the first time in a while, saw the United States as a potential ally and understood that American support for Israel was not guaranteed. In case his ties with the USSR failed, Nasser considered the United States as a potential ally against Israel and saw an opportunity in the superpower conflict. Moreover, he recognized that his role as the champion of Arab nations against imperial powers increased his influence.

Tensions between Egypt and Israel heightened in the mid-1960s when Egypt signed a 5-year defense pact in November 1966. Israeli forces then crossed into Jordan's West Bank and demolished As Samu village. In 1967, Israeli leaders threatened to invade Syria, leading to a significant air battle. Consequently, Egypt deployed troops to the border but refrained from taking action despite pressure from Nasser's commanders.

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June 5th, Israel launched a full-scale attack and swiftly defeated Egypt's forces within three hours during the 1967 war. Following this conflict, Arab leaders convened at a summit in Khartoum in September 1967 where Saudi Arabia pledged financial assistance to Egypt for rebuilding its army and regaining lost land from Israel.At this summit, the Arab leaders stood united in their opposition to Israel and declared the three "nos" of the Khartoum summit: no peace with Israel, no negotiations, no recognition. In November, resolution 242 was unanimously adopted by the UN Security Council as a framework for resolving the June 1967 War. This resolution called for Israel's withdrawal from territories occupied during the conflict and an end to belligerency, allowing all states in the region to coexist.

Egypt accepted this resolution in 1968 on the condition that Israel would evacuate all occupied areas, which led to Egypt recognizing the State of Israel for the first time. However, other Arab nations disagreed with this agreement and saw Egypt's acceptance as a betrayal. Unfortunately, Israel rejected it, causing Nasser to believe that supporting resistance fighters was his only option since Israel refused resolution 242.

Consequently, the "War of Attrition" broke out with Egypt launching attacks on Israeli forces along the canal while Israeli airstrikes nearly destroyed Egyptian Artillery in response. During this period, due to perceiving Israel as a bulwark against Soviet expansion in the area, Nixon Administration supplied military aid to Israel.

Recognizing his limited chances of success,Nasser traveled to Moscow and requested Soviet assistance in establishing an air defense system operated by Soviet pilots and protected by Soviet troops manning anti-aircraft forces.Nasser granted the Soviet Union control over Egyptian

airfields and operational control over Egypt's territory. It appears that the Soviet Union took a calculated risk in the Middle East, manipulating countries as pawns. Nasser and Israel agreed to the Rogers Plan, resulting in a ceasefire along the Suez Canal and a 90-day truce. The PLO criticized this truce and called for Nasser's removal, leading to conflict between Egypt and the PLO. Egypt launched attacks with Jordan to prevent any threat to the treaty. As Nasser tried to reconcile with the Arab world, he fell ill and died. Sadat, his successor, had different intentions - focusing on addressing Egypt's economic challenges through Western financial investment.He aimed to improve relations with the United States in order to attract American investment and advocated for peace as a means to achieve prosperity. On February 4, 1971, Sadat announced a new peace initiative with Israel which proposed exchanging peace for a partial withdrawal from Sinai. An agreement would be reached for Israel's withdrawal from the remaining occupied territories. Additionally, Egypt would reopen the canal and restore diplomatic relations with the United States. However, Sadat's initiative did not receive favorable responses from Tel Aviv or Washington due to concerns regarding Egypt as a Cold War threat at that time. Internally, Egypt faced economic difficulties resulting from its ongoing conflict with Israel and exacerbated by substantial military investments since the June 1967 War. It became clear that Sadat needed to demonstrate progress in his new policy approach. Towards the end of 1972, significant student protests took place and some journalists openly supported these demonstrations. As a result, Sadat felt increasing pressure to wage war against Israel in order to regain

lost territories. Consequently, on October 6, 1973, Egyptian forces launched a successful surprise attack on the Suez Canal while simultaneously Syria also attacked Israel during Ramadan for Arabs and Yom Kippur for Israel.The next day, President Nixon officially requested emergency funds from Congress to finance the ongoing massive arms airlift to Israel. During this time, the major oil producers in the region imposed an embargo on the United States due to their actions. Israel successfully counterattacked and managed to cross the west bank of the canal, surrounding the Egyptian Army. Seeking assistance, Sadat appealed to the Soviet Union. On October 22, Resolution 338 was passed by the UN Security Council, which called for a cease-fire within twelve hours with all parties required to maintain their positions. Egypt accepted the cease-fire but Israel accused Egypt of violations and continued encircling the Army east of the canal. This action angered the Soviet Union as they felt betrayed by the United States. On October 24, Brezhnev's note threatening independent action if help enforcing cease-fire was not provided was delivered by the Soviet ambassador to Kissinger. Fortunately, a UN force was sent to enforce the cease-fire. Syria felt betrayed by Egypt as they were not informed about Sadat's decision to accept it. Two days later, Syria also accepted it but Israel faced significant consequences for only holding off their attackers without achieving a clear victory. The war led to severe austerity measures and decreased living standards in Israel due to its impact on economyFor the first time, Israelis experienced their own humiliation when they were featured on Arab television. Additionally, Israeli military equipment was showcased in Cairo, significantly enhancing

Sadat's prestige. Due to the war and Sadat's previous political actions, he had gained complete control and the power to implement his desired programs, establishing him as a celebrated hero. However, prospects for peace between Israel and Egypt were unfavorable in 1977 since Israel still maintained control over most of Sinai and negotiations had come to a halt after the 1975 disengagement agreement. Menachem Begin, the Israeli Prime Minister known for his uncompromising stance and support for Israeli expansion, had approved settlements development in the occupied West Bank and carried out retaliatory attacks in southern Lebanon. Following food riots in January 1977, Sadat acknowledged the need for drastic measures. In response to an invitation from Begin, Sadat embarked on a journey to Jerusalem on November 19th of that year and agreed to pursue peace. While many Egyptians embraced peace if it meant regaining Egyptian territories, only Sudan, Oman, and Morocco among other Arab nations expressed support for Sadat's trip. This left other Arab states shocked and dismayed as they felt that Sadat had betrayed both Arab unity and the Palestinians. Despite Sadat's denials, these Arab countries believed he intended to independently seek a separate peace agreement with Israel – a belief that ultimately materialized.Peace negotiations between Egypt and Israel officially began in Cairo in December 1977, after months of ongoing discussions. However, by September 1978, these negotiations had reached a clear deadlock. President Jimmy Carter played a major role in attempting to resolve this impasse by inviting Egyptian President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin to Camp David. Despite numerous tense moments that nearly caused the collapse of the talks, on September 17th, Carter announced

the successful achievement of what became known as the Camp David Accords.

The Camp David Accords consisted of two key components: the Framework for Peace in the Middle East and the Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Israel and Egypt. The signing of these accords was met with celebration across Europe and the United States, turning Sadat into an international hero. In Egypt, there was generally favorable reaction to the accords but also opposition from some factions on the left.

However, throughout much of the Arab world, Sadat faced widespread condemnation for his involvement in these agreements. Sudan was one exception, issuing a statement that expressed ambivalent support. As a result of their disapproval, many Arab states suspended aid to Egypt, cut diplomatic ties with them, and expelled them from various Arab institutions. Saudi Arabia even withdrew promised funds for Egypt's purchase of American fighter aircraft.

While Sadat received praise as a champion of peace in Western countries, there was often confusion between Arab nations' rejection specifically of the Camp David Accords versus their broader rejection of peace altogether.The main reason for the Arab rejection was their opposition to Egypt's separate peace agreement with Israel. Although Sadat asserted that the treaty provided a comprehensive resolution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Arab states and the PLO saw it as a separate peace, contradicting Sadat's previous promise not to sign such an agreement. The Arabs believed that only a united Arab front and the threat of force could compel Israel to negotiate a settlement satisfying Palestinian demands for a homeland. However, without Egypt's military strength, this threat diminished since no individual Arab nation possessed enough military power

to confront Israel alone. While the Camp David Accords brought peace to Egypt, they did not bring prosperity. The lack of economic improvement resulted in declining popularity for Sadat. He became increasingly isolated in the Arab world and distanced from most Egyptians. In response to domestic criticism, Sadat expanded censorship and imprisoned his opponents while subjecting Egyptians to various referenda on his actions and proposals; he consistently won by an overwhelming majority. For instance, when the Egyptian people approved the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty in May 1979 with a 99.9 percent vote. When Sadat handpicked Husni Mubarak as his successor, he received widespread approval in a national referendum on October 24th.
Mubarak's main concern regarding the Israeli conflict was reclaiming the Sinai Peninsula for Egypt and reintegrating into the Arab community. He promised to honor the peace treaty with Israel as one of his first acts. In April 1982, Israel withdrew from Sinai as scheduled, and a multinational force of observers was deployed to monitor the peace. Only one army division from Egypt was allowed in Sinai. This led to a relatively positive relationship between Egypt, Israel, and the United States but caused other Arab countries to view Egypt as a betrayer in certain situations.

The involvement of the United States played a crucial role in shaping the peace in Israel during this time. The US viewed both Israel and Egypt as pawns in their global political game during the Cold War, aiming to advance their own policies. Initially, neither country saw the US as an enemy or ally and relied on it less. However, they recognized that they could gain resources from either the powerful Western nation

or its adversary, the USSR.

Under Carter's leadership, for the first time, there was an active effort by the US to promote peace in the Middle East. This could be attributed to Carter's peaceful approach as President or more likely his realization that achieving stability in gas prices and accessing abundant resources required peace in this region.