Early History Of The Celts Essay Example

that later developed into different dialects: Goidelic (or Q Celtic) and Brythonic (or P Celtic). The difference between these dialects originated from variations in pronouncing an Indo-European sound /kw/. In Goidelic, it transformed into /k/, while in Brythonic, it transformed into /p/. The Goidelic languages were spoken in Ireland, Isle of Man, and Scotland, whereas the Brythonic languages were spoken in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton.

The Hallstatt culture followed next in Celtic history from 700 to 500 BC. Subsequently, the La Tne phase emerged lasting from the 5th to 1st century BC. During this period, Celts expanded their influence across various regions including France and Spain to the Black Sea; they also colonized British Isles. The arrival of Romans in these territories marked the end of La Tne culture. However, in places like Ireland and Scotland where Roman occupation was absent, La Tne culture continued to thrive until around 200 AD.

The term "Celt" derives from Keltoi which is Greek for referring to these people.
The Continental Celts were known as Galli and Galatae (or Gauls) to the Romans, while in Britain they were called Pritanni. In the 4th century BC, the Celts conquered northern Italy, sacked Rome, and gained control over Macedonia and Thessaly. They raided Rome again either in 390 or 387 and captured southern Italy between 282 and 272. By 279, they had sacked Delphi and by 278/277 arrived in Asia Minor. After becoming Europe's first Indo-European group to spread across the continent, the Celts faced pressure from Germans and Romans for northward and westward expansion. In the 1st century AD, Roman rule extended over most of Britain while central European Celts fell under German

dominance. The migration of Huns from Asia pushed the Celts further westward and northward towards England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland,and northern France's coast. Celtic traditions have survived through medieval times until today within various regions including Brittany in Western France,Cornwall,Galicia in Northwestern Spain,Galatia in Central Turkey,Wales,the Scottish Highlands,the Isle of Man,Ireland,and Iceland's Norse/Celtic culture to a lesser extent.Caesar noted that Celtic tribes lacked a centralized government but were united by factors such as language,culture,and religion.This lack of political unity ultimately led to their decline and vulnerability throughout history.In early Celtic societies, warfare played a crucial role. Their unique strategy involved charging at enemy armies while making loud noises by banging weapons against shields. They fought in smaller groups using swords, spears, and shields made of basket weave or wood. Although bows and slings were occasionally used, they were not widely adopted.

Celtic warfare primarily occurred among themselves through individual combat between chieftains or kings before the arrival of the Romans. If a king died, the entire tribe was considered defeated. However, when facing the Romans, they had to adapt their tactics to resist attacks from a larger army. Despite this challenge, they never fully united against the Romans.

According to Caesar's account, the Celts residing in Kent were regarded as the most civilized due to their similarity with Gallic customs stemming from their maritime location. On the other hand, inland inhabitants relied on milk and meat for sustenance while dressing in skins since they did not heavily engage in farming activities.

In battle, all Britains would dye themselves blue using wood dyeing techniques to appear more intimidating. They followed a grooming practice of keeping long hair and shaving all

parts of their body except for their head and upper lip.

Polygamy was common among the Celts, particularly among siblings and parents with their children. Any child born from these multiple unions would be considered as belonging to the first person they were betrothed to as a virgin.Celtic society centered around cattle and sheep farming, with limited agricultural activity. Wheat was the main crop cultivated. Trade and commerce were absent, and all transactions relied on exchanges. In Ireland's Celtic society, social structure was based on kinship and organized by the Brehon Laws, a system of laws passed down through tradition and protected by Druids. These laws settled disputes, determined inheritance, property rights, and marriage decisions. The foundation of Celtic society was the extended family unit known as the 'fine' or 'clann,' consisting of male descendants from a common ancestor across generations. The clan offered protection, support, and sought justice if harm or death occurred to any member. Each individual had an honor price representing their value within the fine. If someone caused harm or death to another person in Celtic society, they were obliged to compensate the injured party's fine. Professional mediators often helped avoid blood feuds between clans for crimes against individuals that were considered offenses against the entire clan responsible for protecting its members. When multiple families settled in an area in Celtic society, they formed a political structure called a 'tuath,' which had a chieftain or king as its ruler.The position of king in Celtic society was not necessarily passed down through blood relations, although it did rely on them. The main responsibilities of the king included handling matters outside of the tuath

and leading during times of war. The death of a king in battle would result in the defeat of the tuath due to his sacred status. Furthermore, the king played a crucial role in the social structure by ensuring prosperity for his tribe and redistributing wealth within his kingdom.

Within the tuath, there were three primary classes: Nobility, Aes Dana (including skilled individuals in artistry, learning, craftsmanship, and Druids), and Commoners or Churls. The Nobility consisted of landowners and warriors while Aes Dana comprised educated individuals with high social standing who performed cultural rituals as Druids. Lastly, Commoners or Churls were free but landless individuals. Although slavery existed among Celts, their slaves primarily consisted of war captives or conquered people.

Celtic society followed Brehon law which emphasized kinship groups rather than individual actions. These groups held responsibility for their members' actions. Similar to Indian culture's class system, Celtic society had an influential position comparable to India's Brahmin class held by Druids due to their education and social standingJust like the Brahmins in India who performed cultural rituals and held religious knowledge responsibilities, the Druids had similar tasks within Celtic society. The Celtic society had a hierarchical structure consisting of various ranks or castes such as serfs, peasants, freemen, craftsmen, warriors, nobles, kings, and priests. Each caste had its own rules with stricter guidelines for higher positions. In early Celtic society, social status was determined by cattle ownership rather than land ownership since the land belonged to the fine (kinship group), although its use was likely controlled by the leader of the fine. Clientship played a significant role where lower classes provided goods and services to noblemen in

exchange for protection and support. Within the noble class (tuath), rank was determined based on individual strength and skill. The Druids held a unique position in Celtic society as they fulfilled multiple roles such as priests, magistrates, scholars, and physicians.

The Druids held a similar position to Brahmans in India,Magi in Persia,and priests in Egypt.Their existence spanned from the 2nd century BC untilthe Romans conquered the Celts towards the end ofthe 2nd century AD.The rise of Christianity led tothe disappearanceof pagan practicesand consequently brought anendtoDruidic ritualsLimited information about Druids is available due to their reliance on oral tradition instead of written records. These revered individuals played a vital role in ceremonies and activities involving communication with deities, as the divine father god of each Celtic community (tuath) could only be accessed through them. Within Celtic society, Druids were highly esteemed and wielded significant influence and power. They served as educators, healers, and legal practitioners, working alongside knights to oversee both public and private sacrifices while interpreting religious affairs.

Seeking instruction from Druids was seen as an honor among young men, granting them great respect within society. The Druids possessed authority in settling disputes such as crimes, murders, inheritance conflicts, and boundary disagreements. Rewards and punishments were handed down by them; those who defied their decisions were not allowed to participate in sacrificial rites.

Druids exerted control over sacred and secular matters alike and were considered authorities across various domains like legal proceedings and divine connections. The Celtic people had extensive knowledge encompassing various subjects including animals, beneficial plants, celestial bodies like the sun, moon, and stars.The Druids stored their collective knowledge, which included laws, history, and traditions essential

to their way of life. Aspiring Druids dedicated 20 years to mastering the complete knowledge of the Druidical cannon. During this time, they fulfilled religious ministerial duties and taught moral doctrine, philosophy, education, natural science, and law enforcement. To ensure thorough understanding and memorization of this knowledge, they repeated their master's words until everything was committed to memory. While some Druids could read and write for communication purposes with outsiders, they avoided using writing to record their own knowledge and tradition. They believed that relying solely on memory was necessary to protect information from falling into wrong hands and safeguard their community. Celtic religion followed polytheism and worshiped gods with Indo-European origins. These deities often appeared in groups of three, paving the way for later acceptance of the Christian Trinity concept. Unlike other contemporary religions relying heavily on temples for rituals, Celtic rituals focused on utilizing nature itself as sacred spaces.When engaging in outdoor worship of gods or goddesses, the Celts would construct a circle with an altar at its center to establish a sacred space intertwined with nature. The measurement of time for the Celts was unique, as they counted nights followed by days instead of using our modern system. Druids were relied upon to maintain a lunar-based calendar, rather than one based on the movement of the sun. In ancient times, there were four significant religious festivals that marked the changing seasons.

The first festival was Imbolc, which occurred in February and celebrated fertility and growth as a pastoral festival linked to cows' initial milking. Beltaine took place in May and also emphasized the fertility of cattle and crops while honoring Druids through fire

rituals. Lugnasa served as a harvest festival between mid-July and mid-August, featuring an elaborate feast on August 1st to honor gods and celebrate a bountiful harvest. Lastly, Samhain fell on October 31st and symbolized the start of the New Year while commemorating the establishment of order from chaos.

During this festival, boundaries between realms would open up, allowing spirits from the Otherworld to visit our realm. However, it was considered dangerous for humans during this time due to their susceptibility to supernatural forces. The Celts believed that the Otherworld was where gods and supernatural beings resided – it was depicted either underground or as islands in the sea where sickness, old age, and death did not exist.The Celtic people had a belief in soul transmigration after death, regardless of one's actions in the physical world. They believed that everyone would go to the Otherworld, which was also referred to as the Land of Living, Delightful Plain, and Land of Young. The importance of this realm was equal to that of the physical world, and there were stories about journeys between these two realms.

When someone passed away, death rituals were followed. These rituals included having a feast near the graveyard and placing objects in the grave. Celtic beliefs revolved around many gods and goddesses, with each tribe (tuath) having their own deities. Some gods were shared among different tribes due to similar names or areas of influence.

Each tribe typically had a divine father or tribal god who looked after them. Humans interacted with these gods through magic and ritual, often making sacrifices. The Celtic Gods had multiple names depending on the tribe they belonged to.

One such god

was Lugh, who excelled in various arts such as horsemanship, warfare, invention of games, and supported travelers and commerce. Cernunnos, also known as the Horned God ruled over animals and provided protection for them.

There was also a blacksmith god who possessed great skill in smith craft and supported this art form along with others. He also acted as a healing deity because iron held significance in Celtic life due to its magical properties. In addition to this role, he had power over water sources and thermal springs.The Celtic belief system encompassed a variety of gods and goddesses, each with their own distinct roles. These deities were often linked to specific geographical areas and held significant positions within the belief system. One example is Oghma, who was revered as the god of eloquence, and Donn, who served as both ruler of the Otherworld and a deity associated with death. Celtic goddesses frequently formed triads and wielded influence over particular locations.

Brigid, also known as Brigit or Brighid, stood as a mother goddess with diverse spheres of influence. She held sway over arts and crafts, healing practices, poetry, traditional knowledge acquisition, livestock and agriculture, as well as rituals celebrating spring. The Sky Father occupied an essential role in this belief system by being regarded as the father figure for all gods alongside the Earth Mother. In some iterations of Celtic beliefs, this deity assumed leadership of the pantheon or exercised authority over thunder and lightning.

The overseer of the lower realm governed the Otherworld while guiding souls to their destination there. As for the Earth Mother, she shared parentage with the Sky Father and was closely associated with fertility

regarding land cultivation,rearing animals,and human populations alike.She offered protection to tribes through magical means rather than relying on physical weaponryCeltic religious practices acknowledged deities connected to specific natural features, such as sacred trees, clearings, and wells. Most male gods had female consorts who embodied traits similar to those of mother goddesses. Shape-shifting was common among Celtic deities, often transforming into their preferred animals. Celtic beliefs also attributed significance to animals; swans and ravens held symbolic meaning for the Celts. Swans adorned with gold or silver chains were considered supernatural beings representing gods in bird form, while ravens acted as messengers of the gods with prophetic calls. Salmon possessed Otherworld wisdom and were revered as symbols for sacred bodies of water. Both salmon and trout could make prophecies.
Water sources like springs, rivers, and sacred wells were believed to possess healing powers and served as gateways into the Otherworld. Devotees would regularly throw gifts into these water sources to show their devotion to the gods. The Romans viewed many Celtic beliefs and practices—including human sacrifice and collecting enemy heads—as barbaric.
Celtic customs encompassed house blessings and various rituals that the Romans deemed superstitious. Christianity was introduced during Roman rule over the Celts in Britain around the 4th century AD before spreading to Ireland, possibly via British captives.During the 5th century, Germanic tribes like the Saxons arrived in Britain and displaced many Celtic Christians to Wales and Cornwall. However, British missionaries led by Saint Patrick founded a new church in Ireland, which eventually became the center of Celtic Christianity. Saint Patrick is famous for bringing Christianity to Ireland and promoting literacy. Gradually, pagan traditions were either replaced or incorporated

into the Christian faith. Pagan festivals and holidays transformed into Christian holy days and stories about local gods and goddesses evolved into tales of Irish saints. For example, Brigid, a Celtic goddess, became known as St. Brigit, a prominent female saint of Ireland.

Unlike Roman-occupied territories that followed Episcopal Christianity led by bishops requiring urbanization, Irish Christianity adopted a primarily monastic approach under abbot guidance due to the less urbanized nature of the Celtic world. Irish monks and monasteries played a crucial role in preserving ancient Roman literature during Europe's early medieval period.

From the late 6th to early 8th centuries, Irish missionaries spread Christianity across Europe and established numerous monasteries in what is now France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy - an era known as the Golden Age of Ireland.

While Christianity was reintroduced to Britain in the late 6th century, it clashed with Celtic Christianity and its unique customs.Saxon Christianity dominated over Celtic Christianity in Britain during the tenth century, while Viking invasions weakened Celtic Christianity in Ireland during the 9th and 10th centuries. This led to the disappearance of characteristic Celtic institutions by the 12th century. It should be noted that theories on Celtic origins, mythology, and culture are often speculative and not entirely accurate for historical writing. Early Celtic history relies on second-hand sources which leave many details too vague for absolute truth. Presently, there are conflicting views regarding the Celts, with some romanticizing their magical and heroic aspects and others dismissing any connections between Celtic tribes skeptically. Complete certainty on these matters is unlikely to ever be achieved. Nonetheless, we persist in our pursuit of knowledge by relying on reliable sources such as archaeological

evidence, Roman records, and accounts from monks. However, it is important to acknowledge that conclusions drawn from these sources will always remain theoretical.