Chapters 1-4 Henslin Sociology – Flashcards
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sociological perspective
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understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social context
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society
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people who share a culture and a territory
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social location
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the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society
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natural sciences
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the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and predict events in our natural environments
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social sciences
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the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations
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generalization
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a statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader group or situation
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common sense
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those things that "everyone knows" are true
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Auguste Comte
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the father of sociology. began to analyze the bases of the social order; stressed that the scientific method should be applied to the study of society, he did not apply it himself
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sociology
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the scientific study of society and human behavior
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positivism
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the application of the scientific approach to the social world
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Herbert Spencer
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sometimes called the second founder of sociology, coined the term "survival of the fittest"; he thought that helping the poor was wrong, that this merely helped the "less fit" survive.
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class conflict
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Marx' term for the struggle between capitalists and workers
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bourgeoisie
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Marx' term for capitalists; those who own the means of production
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proletariat
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Marx' term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production
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Emile Durkheim
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contributed many important concepts to sociology. His comparison of the suicide rates of several countries revealed an underlying social factor; people are more likely to commit suicide if their ties to others in their communities are weak. His identification of the key role of social integration in social life remains central to sociology today
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social integration
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the degree to which members of a group or society feel united by shared values and other social bonds
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key Durkheim principle
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Human behavior cannot be understood only in terms of the individual; we must always examine the social forces that affect people's lives.
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Max Weber
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used cross-cultural and historical materials to trace the causes of social change and to determine how social groups affect people's orientations to life.
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Protestant ethic
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a self-denying approach to life; financial success was the blessing that indicated God was on one's side.
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The Spirit of Capitalism
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readiness to invest capital in order to make more money
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value-free
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the view that a sociologist's personal values or biases should not influence social research
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values
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the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable; good or bad; beautiful or ugly.
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objectivity
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value neutrality in research
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replication
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the repetition of a study in order to test its findings
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Verstehen
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a German word used by Weber that is perhaps best understood as "to have insight into someone's situation"
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subjective meanings
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the meanings that people give their own behavior
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social facts
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Durkheim's term for a group's patterns of behavior
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W.E.B. DuBois
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spent his lifetime studying relations between African Americans and whites. Like many early North American sociologists, he combined the role of academic sociologist with that of social reformer. He was also the editor of Crisis, and influential journal of the time.
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Jane Addams
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a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, worked on behalf of poor immigrants. With Ellen G. Starr, she founded Hull House, a center to help immigrants in Chicago. She was also a leader in women's rights as well as the peace movement of World War I.
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Harriet Martineau
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early feminist; translated Comte's works into English.
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C. Wright Mills
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a controversial figure in sociology because of his analysis of the role of the power elite in US society. Today, his analysis is taken for granted by many sociologists and members of the public.
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Power elite
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the top leaders of business, politics, and the military
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basic (pure) sociology
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sociological research for the purpose of making discoveries about life in human groups, not for making changes in those groups.
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applied sociology
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the use of sociology to solve problems--from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of global pollution
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symbolic interactionism
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a theoretical perspective in which society is views as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another
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George Herbert Mead
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one of the founders of symbolic interactionism.
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functional analysis (aka functionalism/structured functionalism)
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a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium (aka functionalism/structured functionalism)
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Robert K Merton
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major proponent of functionalism.
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functions
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beneficial consequences of people's actions
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dysfunctions
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consequences that harm a society and undermine a system's equilibrium
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manifest function
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an action intended to help some part of a system
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latent function
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unintended consequences of actions
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latent dysfunctions
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unintended consequences that harm society.
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conflict theory
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a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scare resources
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macro-level analysis
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an examination of large-scale patterns of society
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micro-level analysis
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an examination of small-scale patterns of society
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social interaction
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what people do when they are in one another's presence
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nonverbal interaction
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communication without words, through gestures, use of space, silence, and so on
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public sociology
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sociology being used for the public good; especially the sociological perspective guiding politicians and policy makers
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globalization
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the extensive interconnections among nations, due to the expansion of capitalism
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globalization of capitalism
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capitalism becoming the globe's dominant economic system
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culture
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the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next
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material culture
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the material objects that distinguish a group of people, such as their art, buildings, weapons, utensils, machinery, hairstyles, clothing, and jewelry
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nonmaterial (symbolic) culture
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a group's way of thinking and doing
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culture shock
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the disorientation people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life.
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ethnocentrism
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the use of one's own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors.
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cultural relativism
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not judging a culture, but trying to understand it on its own terms
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symbol
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something to which people attach meanings and then use to communicate with others
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gestures
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the ways in which people use their bodies to communicate with one another.
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language
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a system of symbols that can be combined in an infinite number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought.
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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
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it is our language that determines our consciousness and hence our perception of objects and events
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norms
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expectations or rules of behavior that reflect and enforce behavior
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sanctions
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either expressions of approval given to people for upholding norms or expressions of disapproval for violating them
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folkways
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norms that are not strictly enforced
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mores
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norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values or to the well-being of the group
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taboo
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a norm so strong that it brings extreme sanctions and even revulsion if someone violates it
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subculture
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the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world
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counterculture
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a group whose values, beliefs, norms, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture
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pluralistic society
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a society made up of many different groups with contrasting values and orientations to life.
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value cluster
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values that together form a larger whole
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value contradiction
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values that contradict one another, to follow the one means to come into conflict with the other.
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ideal culture
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a people's ideal values and norms; the goals held out for them.
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real culture
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the norms and values that people actually follow
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cultural universal
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a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every group.
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sociobiology
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a framework of thought that views human behavior as the result of natural selection and considers biological factors to be the fundamental cause of human behavior.
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technology
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in its narrow sense, tools; in its broader sense includes the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools.
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new technology
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the emerging technologies of an era that have a significant impact on social life
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cultural lag
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Ogburn's term for human behavior lagging behind technological innovations.
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cultural diffusion
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the spread of cultural traits from one group to another; includes both material and nonmaterial cultural traits.
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cultural leveling
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the process by which cultures become similar to one another; refers especially to the process by which Western culture is being exported and diffused into other nations
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social environment
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the entire human environment, including direct contact with others
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feral children
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children assumed to have been raised by animals, in the wilderness, isolated from humans
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socialization
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the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group--the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them
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self
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the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves "from the outside"' the views we internalize of how others see us.
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looking-glass self
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a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us.
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taking the role of the other
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putting oneself in someone else's shoes; understanding how someone else thinks and thus anticipating how that person will act.
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significant other
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an individual who significantly influences someone else's life
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generalized other
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the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people "in general"; the child's ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of self
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imitation
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Mead's first level in taking on the role of others; we can only mimic
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play
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Mead's second level in taking on the role of others; we pretend to take the roles of specific people
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team games
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Mead's third level in taking on the role of others; we learn to take on multiple roles
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sensorimotor stage
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Piaget's first stage of development; our understanding is limited to direct contact
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Preoperational stage
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Piaget's second stage of development; we develop the ability to use symbols
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Concrete Operational stage
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Piaget's third stage of development; we can now understand numbers, size, causation, and speed and we are able to take the role of others
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Formal Operational stage
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Piaget's fourth stage of development; we are capable of abstract thought.
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id
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Freud's term for inborn basic drives
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ego
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Freud's term for a balancing force between the id and the demands of society
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superego
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Freud's term for the conscience, the internalized norms and values of our society
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Lawrence Kohlberg
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Moral Development: amoral, preconventional, conventional, postconventional
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amoral stage
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no right or wrong
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preconventional stage
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follow rules to stay out of trouble
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conventional stage
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follow rules because it's the right thing to do
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postconventional stage
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abstract principles of morality and judge people's behavior accordingly
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American values
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Achievement & success; individualism, hard work, efficiency & practicality; material comfort; freedom; democracy, equality; group superiority; education, religiousity, romantic love
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gender
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the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its males and females; masculinity or femininity
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gender socialization
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the ways in which society sets children on different paths in life because they are male or female
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peer group
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a group of individuals of roughly the same age who are linked by common interests
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mass media
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forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, television, and blogs that are directed to mass audiences
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gender role
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the behaviors and attitudes expected of people because they are female or male
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social inequality
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a social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others
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agents of socialization
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individuals or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life
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resocialization
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the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors
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total institution
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a place that is almost totally controlled by those who run it, which people are cut off from the rest of society and the society is mostly cut off from them.
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degradation ceremony
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a term coined by Garfinkle to refer to a ritual whose goal is to strip away someone's position (social status); in doing so, a new social and self-identity is stamped on the individual
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life course
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the stages of our life as we go from birth to death
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transitional adulthood
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a period following high school when young adults have not yet taken on the responsibilities ordinarily associated with adulthood
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macrosociology
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analysis of social life that focuses on broad features such as social class and the relationships of groups to one another; usually used by functionalists and conflict theory
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microsociology
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analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; typically used by symbolic interactionists
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social structure
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the framework that surrounds us, consisting of the relationships of people and groups to one another, which gives direction to and sets limits on behavior
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social class
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Weber: a large group of people who rank close to one another in property, power, and prestige. Marx: one of 2 groups: capitalists/workers
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status
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the position that someone occupies in a social group
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status set
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all the statuses or positions that an individual occupies
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ascribed status
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a position an individual either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life
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achieved status
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a position that is earned, accomplished, or involves at least some effort or activity on the individual's part
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status symbols
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items used to identify status
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master status
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a status that cuts across the other statuses and and individual occupies
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status inconsistency
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ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on other
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role
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the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status
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group
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people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant (aka social group)
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social institution
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the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs
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mechanical solidarity
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Durkheim's term for the unity that people feel as a result of performing the same or similar tasks
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organic solidarity
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Durkheim's term for the interdependence that results from the division of labor; people depending on others to fulfill their jobs
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division of labor
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the splitting of a group's or a society's tasks into specialities
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Gemeinschaft
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a type of society in which life is intimate; a community in which everyone knows everyone else and people share a sense of togetherness
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Gesellschaft
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a type of society that is dominated by impersonal relationships, individual accomplishments and self-interest
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stereotype
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assumptions of what people are like, whether true or false
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body language
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the ways in which people use their bodies to give messages to others
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dramaturgy
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an approach, pioneered by Goffman, in which social life is analyzed in terms of drama or the stage
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impression management
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people's efforts to control the impressions that others receive of them.
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front stage
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places where we give performances
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back stage
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places where people rest from their performances, discussion their presentations, and plan future performances
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role performance
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the ways in which someone performs a role within the limits that the role provides; showing a particular "style" or "personality"
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role conflict
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conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations of another role
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role strain
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conflicts that someone feels within a role
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sign-vehicles
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a term used by Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self
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teamwork
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the collaboration of two or more people to manage impressions jointly
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face-saving behavior
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techniques used to salvage a performance that is going sour
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ethnomethodology
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the study of how people use background assumptions to make sense out of life
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background assumption
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a deeply embedded common understanding of how the world operates and how people ought to act
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Thomas Theorem
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the definition of the situation: "if people define situations as real they are real in their consequences"
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social construction of reality
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use of background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real
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science
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the application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained by those methods
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manifest dysfunction
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intended harmful consequence to society
