CHAPT 5: Sociological Research Flashcards

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Mitchell Duneier's study of homeless men on New York City's Sixth Avenue involved hanging out with his research subjects to collect data. This type of methodology is known as:
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Participant Observation.
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In social research, a hypothesis is:
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a proposed relationship between two or more variables.
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American sociology in the United States began at what university?
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University of Chicago
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All of the following are described as golden rules of ethical conduct in social research EXCEPT: A. voluntary participation. B. never debrief. C. informed consent. D. do no harm.
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Never debrief
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As defined by C. Wright Mills, what \"enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society\"?
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Sociological Imagination
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What focuses its analyses on larger social dynamics at the societal and structural levels?
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Macrosociology
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The likelihood that a researcher will obtain the same result using the same measures the next time he or she tests a hypothesis is:
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Reliability.
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A variable that is thought to cause a change in another variable is called the:
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Independent Variable.
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George H. Mead described how the \"self\" internalizes the views of society as a whole, transcending the individual and particular situations. He calls this larger society:
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the Generalized Other.
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A correlation is:
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a simultaneous change in two variables.
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What modern sociological theory argues that there are no shared, objective meanings?
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Postmodernism
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What sociologists wrote Suicide in 1897?
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Émile Durkheim
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What modern sociological theory explains social behavior by examining the meanings that social signals and signs represent to individuals?
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Symbolic Interactionism
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When one factor is said to influence another factor, we refer to this as:
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causality.
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According to Comte, positivism arose out of a need to make ____________ sense of the social order in a time of declining religious authority.
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Moral
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According to your textbook's author, Chicago School researcher Louis Wirth's essay, \"Urbanism as a Way of Life,\" might be classified today as?
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cultural sociology
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All of the following are examples of social institutions used to prevent websites from undermining colleges' degree-conferring abilities EXCEPT: A. employers. B. police forces. C. copyright law. D. families.
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Families
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The research method that uses information that can be converted to numerical form is:
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quantitative research.
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The intended purpose of desegregation of schools in the 1950s was to make education equal for everyone. What was not intended was that many racial minority teachers and principals lost their jobs. This unintended purpose was called a(n) ____________ function by functionalist theorist Talcott Parsons.
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Latent
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A sociologist studying minor children, pregnant women, or inmates must get approval, as these groups are known as:
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protected populations.
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Charles H. Cooley argued that the \"self\" emerges from how an individual interacts with others and then interprets those interactions. He calls this:
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the looking glass self.
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What is the meaning of the term white coat effects in social research?
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The impact researchers have on the people/relationships they study
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The three factors needed to establish causality are:
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correlation, time order, and ruling out alternative explanations.
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A woman makes a career change from being an accountant with a large auditing company to being a graphic designer in a small ad agency. This is an example of:
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Resocialization
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In social development theory, the \"self\" can be defined as ________
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the identity of a person as perceived by that same person.
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Which of the following is an example of a total institution? A. an elementary school B. a sports team C. a convent D. a political party
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A convent
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According to dramaturgical theory, a main goal of every social interaction is ________
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to make a good impression.
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Socialization is the process by which people ________
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internalize the beliefs, values, and behaviors of a given society and learn to function as a member of that society.
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The use of stereotypes allows people to ________
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ignore complex, underlying issues that are difficult to talk about.
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Some businesses in the United States, especially food-service establishments, will post a sign that reads, \"No shirt, no shoes, no service.\" This is an example of?
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Reinforcement of a cultural norm
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Which political theorist developed the concept of hegemony?
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Antonio Gramsci
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Nonmaterial culture includes ________
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values, beliefs, behaviors, and social norms.
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A group of people is waiting to be helped at a customer service desk in a store. A woman in the waiting area suddenly clears her throat and spits on the floor. Everyone else in the room is taken aback and gives her dirty looks. How can this reaction be explained in sociological terms?
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The woman who spit on the floor is not conforming to social norms that are shared by the other people in the room.
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Which is not a basic tenet of symbolic interactionism? A. Meanings are modified and filtered through an interpretive process that each individual uses in dealing with outward signs. B. Meanings develop because they are functional for society. C. Human beings act toward ideas, concepts, and values on the basis of the meaning that those things have for them. D. Meanings are products of social interaction in society.
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Meanings develop because they are functional for society.
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The crux of the nature versus nurture debate involves whether ________
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biology or socialization shapes human behavior.
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Which of the following is NOT a definition of the term culture?
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the natural environment
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Ethnomethodology is an approach to studying human interaction that focuses on ________
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how we make sense of our world, how we convey this understanding to others, and how we produce a mutually shared social order.
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What is cultural relativism?
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recognizing differences across cultures without judging those differences as positive or negative
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Who developed role theory as a way to examine social relations?
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Robert Merton
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What is an example of soft power?
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the expansion of American corporations into the global Third World
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________ can be defined as a process in which a dominant group, by virtue of its moral and intellectual leadership in society, secures the voluntary \"consent\" of the masses.
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Hegemony
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Civil inattention means ________
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refraining from directly interacting with someone until an opening signal is given.
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Ideology can be described as ________
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a system of concepts and relationships.
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The idea that culture is a projection of social structures and relationships is fundamental to which of the following theories?
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reflection theory
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According to George Herbert Mead's stages of development, children first start to learn to recognize an \"other\" through ________
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imitation.
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A/An ________ can be defined as a group that shares distinct cultural values and behavioral patterns that distinguish it from others within the same culture or society.
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subculture
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________ is the process by which people internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn how to function as members of that society.
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Socialization
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Which of the following is an example of a given off gesture? A. talking to a colleague over coffee B. glancing at your watch while someone talks to you C. winking at a stranger D. nodding in agreement during a job interview
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glancing at your watch while someone talks to you
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Informal social sanctions are ________
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understood by members of a social group without being openly expressed.
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According to strain theory, a ritualist is a person who ________
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rejects socially defined goals but not the socially acceptable means to achieve them.
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Which of the following is an example of a primary group? A. a preschool class B. a neighborhood volunteer association C. a three-time state champion high-school volleyball team D. a family in which the parents live in California and their children live around the United States
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a family in which the parents live in California and their children live around the United States
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What is one explanation for why it can be difficult to accurately measure changes in crime rates over time?
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Definitions of crimes change over time.
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Entering a work training program after being released from prison is an example of ?
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rehabilitative justice
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Secondary deviance refers to ________
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deviant acts that occur after primary deviance and as a result of being labeled \"deviant.\"
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In order to combat rising crime rates, a state introduces tough new sentencing laws. The hopes of politicians and law-enforcement officials for a subsequent decrease in crime are based on ________
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deterrence theory.
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________ refers to crimes committed by a professional against a corporation, agency, or other business.
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White-collar crime
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Organizational culture refers to ________
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the shared beliefs and behaviors within a social group.
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The goal of correctional centers and mental health institutions to help inmates or patients learn to be productive members of society may be at odds with ________
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the way life in a total institution can strip away a person's self-identity and leave him or her feeling lost and vulnerable.
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Labeling theory is a ________ theory.
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micro-level
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In the context of social networks, a tie is ________
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a set of stories that explains our relationship to the other members of our network.
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Differential opportunity theory links what two things in analyzing deviance?
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economic opportunities and crime rates
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________ refers to the degree to which ties are reinforced through indirect paths within a social network.
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Embeddedness
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One advantage of network analysis is that ________
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it can reveal patterns in social structures that might not ever become evident through answers to direct questions.
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According to Georg Simmel, what is the key difference between a small group and a party?
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A small group is unifocal, whereas a party is multifocal.
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One of the unique characteristics of a dyad is that ________
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if one member of the group leaves, the group ceases to exist.
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Devah Pager's research on how criminal records deter potential employers illustrates the consequences of ________
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Stigma
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Martha wants to get a highly competitive internship with a state legislator. She has talked to her family members and friends, but no one seems to have any useful contacts. One day she runs into a former classmate she has not seen for several years and learns that the classmate has a cousin who worked as the assistant campaign manager for a state senator in the most recent election. The classmate then offers to put Martha in touch with his cousin. This is an example of what concept?
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the strength of weak ties
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What social trend, related to social capital, did Robert Putnam focus on in his book Bowling Alone?
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People are less involved in communal activities and organizations.
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A secondary group is characterized by ________
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instrumental relationships.
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________ is/are the information, knowledge of people or things, and connections that help individuals enter preexisting networks or gain power in them.
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Social capital
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The Asch test provides insight into what concept?
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group conformity
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Definitions of deviant behavior tend to ________
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change over time and vary from one context to another.
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Anomie can be defined as a sense of aimlessness or despair that develops when an individual ________
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experiences a loss of order and normalcy from too little social regulation.
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Postmodern theorists argue that ________
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all phenomena have multiple meanings and no one meaning can be more valid than another.
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People's social identity is ________
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a way that they define themselves in relation to groups they are a part of or groups they choose not to be a part of.
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A social institution can be described as ________
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a group of social positions, connected by social relations, that perform a social role.
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Examining the interactions between people with a focus on how the people talk, dress, and use body language is an example of which theory?
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symbolic interactionism
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Which of the following is an example of an application of midrange theory?
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exploring the role of churches in rural areas
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Which of the following is an example of using one's sociological imagination?
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thinking about why people in a particular country greet each other in a certain way
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The focus on what social phenomena means to individuals is
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interpretive sociology.
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Justin decides to conduct research for a class project by recording and assessing how people choose where to sit on a public bus. Which type of sociology is this?
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microsociology
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a factor that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
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moderating variable
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What is the meaning of the term reflexivity with regard to social research?
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being aware of the effects that researchers have on the processes and relationships they are studying
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In an interview with the text's author, Mitchell Duneier describes his desire to conduct research that adheres to the ethical guidelines of social research. If Duneier had interviewed street vendors by secretly recording their interactions, what ethical guideline would he have violated?
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informed consent
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Comparative research usually involves studying which of the following?
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two or more units of analysis that have a number of things in common but differ on a dimension (or dimensions) of interest
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Social research that tries to engage a nonacademic audience and influence society is often referred to as ________
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public sociology.
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Ideology can be described as ________
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a system of concepts and relationships.
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Which political theorist developed the concept of hegemony?
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Antonio Gramsci
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Hegemony
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________ can be defined as a process in which a dominant group, by virtue of its moral and intellectual leadership in society, secures the voluntary \"consent\" of the masses.
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The use of stereotypes allows people to ________
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ignore complex, underlying issues that are difficult to talk about
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Which of the following theories argues that people's choices about how to act are based on shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions?
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symbolic interactionism
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A classmate has been talking for weeks about trying out for the school dance team. The day after the tryouts, you ask her how it went, and she answers that she didn't go because she was sick. In reality, however, she did try out but wasn't selected. The way your classmate handled the situation is an example of what?
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saving face
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According to George Herbert Mead's stages of development, children first start to learn to recognize an \"other\" through ________
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imitation
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Which is not a basic tenet of symbolic interactionism?
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Meanings develop because they are functional for society.
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Ethnomethodology is an approach to studying human interaction that focuses on ________
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how we make sense of our world, how we convey this understanding to others, and how we produce a mutually shared social order.
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In social development theory, the \"self\" can be defined as ________
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the identity of a person as perceived by that same person.
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What social trend, related to social capital, did Robert Putnam focus on in his book Bowling Alone?
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People are less involved in communal activities and organizations.
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Organizational culture refers to ________
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the shared beliefs and behaviors within a social group.
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In a reexamination of Stanley Milgram's six degrees of separation theory, Duncan Watts estimated that about half of the population is connected to each other through six degrees. If these networks were mapped, what would you call the dead ends where groups lack connections between clusters?
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structural holes
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Limits of Socialization
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•Cannot explain everything about development and personality •Both biology and social interactions make us who we are
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The nature versus nurture debate examines the importance of _____ in shaping human behavior.
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biology, on the one hand, and social interaction, on the other
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Charles Horton Cooley
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The \"self\" emerges from our ability to imagine how others see us
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In social development theory, the \"self\" can be defined as _____
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the individual identity of a person as perceived by that same person
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Mead
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•Childhood development of social self •Infants start out knowing \"I\" -Through interaction they learn \"me\" and the \"other\" •First step: \"generalized other\" -Internalized sense of total expectations of others in a variety of settings
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According to George Herbert Mead's stages of development, children learn to recognize an \"other\" through _____.
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imitation
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Which of the following is an example of recognizing the \"generalized other\"?
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A child is taught to hold the door for her parents or siblings when they are carrying something into the house. While at the mall she holds the door for a stranger who is carrying several bags.
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Feral children
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•Raised in isolation, confinement, or by animals •~100 known cases •Rarely able to function normally in society
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Agents of Socialization
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•Families •School •Peers •Total Institutions
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Total Institutions
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an institution in which one is totally immersed and that controls all the basics of day-to-day life
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Which of the following is an example of a total institution?
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convent
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peer pressure
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the pressure of conformity
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Which of the following scenarios involves the use of peer pressure?
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A member of a college football team is ostracized by his teammates when he refuses to get a tattoo of the team mascot.
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Resocialization
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the process by which one's sense of social values, beliefs, and norms are reengineered, often deliberately through an intense social process that may take place in a total institution
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Resocialization would be most likely to occur in which of the following situations?
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A man makes a career change from being an accountant with a large auditing company to being a graphic designer in a small ad agency.
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Who developed role theory as a way to examine social relations?
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Robert Merton
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Status
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a recognizable social position (give us roles)
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ascribed status
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a status into which one is born
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achieved status
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earned or imposed by others ex: murderers
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Master Status
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Stands out or overrides all others
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Role
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Behavior expected from a particular status
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Gender Roles
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Norms associated w/ male or female status
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Role conflict
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the tension caused by competing demands b/t two or more roles pertaining to different statuses
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A college student who works part time and cares for her grandmother must take off work one day to drive her grandmother to a doctor's appointment. She turns in a class project late because she has to make up the time at work. This is an ex. of _____.
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role conflict
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The interview with CJ Pascoe highlights the peer pressure that males can face in school to conform to certain ideals of masculinity. If a high school football player were to face pressure from peers to live up to the woman-chasing \"stud athlete\" role, while also attempting to be a model \"pure\" Christian to his church peers, what sociological problem would this student be facing?
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role conflict
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Gender theorists
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believe that deliberate socialization steers boys and girls to different roles
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Your introductory sociology professor argues that people and institutions interact differently with boys and girls and thus socialize them into different roles. Which of the following answers best describes your professor's perspective?
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gender theorist
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The Social Constructing of Reality
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•Ideas and objects gain their meaning through social interaction •Individuals can share common norms, beliefs, and values
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Social Construction of Food
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Not all food is \"food\"
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Symbolic Interaction
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•Micro-level Theory •Humans react based on shared symbolic meanings -Produced by social interactions -Filtered through individual interpretation
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Which of the following theories argues that people's choices about how to act are based on shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions?
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symbolic interactionism
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Dramaturgy (Goffman)
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•Life=theater •Humans=actors -\"Impression management\": we are trying to control what people think of us
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According to dramaturgical theory, the primary goal of every social interaction is _____.
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to make a good impression
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Dramaturgy
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•front stage-public (out in the open) -Ex: church, •back stage-private (how we separate our work face from personal face) •face -esteem in which an individual is held by others
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saving face
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A classmate has been talking for weeks about trying out for the school dance team. The day after the tryouts, you ask her how it went and she answers that she didn't go because she was sick. In reality, however, she did try out but wasn't selected. The way your classmate handled the situation is an example of what?
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Civic inattention
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refraining from directly interacting with someone until an opening signal is given
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What is is an ex. of a given off gesture?
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glancing at your watch while someone talks to you
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Ethnomethodology
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an approach to studying human interaction that focuses on how we make sense of our world, how we convey this understanding to others, and how we produce a mutually shared social order
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Harold Garfinkel
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well known for creating breaching experiments
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A group of people is waiting to be helped at a customer service desk in a store. A woman in the waiting area suddenly clears her throat and spits on the floor. Everyone else in the room is taken aback and gives her a dirty look. How can this reaction be explained in sociological terms?
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The woman who spit on the floor is not conforming to social norms that are shared by the other people in the room.
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According to the sociologist Georg Simmel, what is the single most important factor in predicting the behavior of members of a social group?
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the number of people in the group
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Dyad
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•group of 2 -Most intimate form of social life -Mutually dependent: If one member leaves, the group ends
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Triad
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a group of 3 or more
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When a 3rd person joins
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•Possible roles: -Mediator -Tertius gaudens -Divide et impera
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Mediator
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the conflict resolver
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Tertius gaudens
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one who profits from disagreement with the others
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Melinda and Justin are co-leads on a project at work, but their working styles differ greatly and they are having trouble agreeing on procedures and objectives. Elena, a member of their team who is relatively new to the company, steps in and pulls together a crucial part of the project to meet a tight deadline. The account manager is impressed with her work and she ends up getting a promotion after the project is completed. In this triad, Elena could be said to have assumed what role?
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Tertius gaudens
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Divide et impera
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one who purposefully breaks up the others
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A group with five members has the potential for how many relationships?
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10
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According to the sociologist Georg Simmel's categories, what is the key difference between a small group and a party?
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A small group is unifocal, whereas a party is multifocal.
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Jose goes to a training session for election volunteers in his precinct. There are 15 participants and two trainers. This would be an example of which kind of group?
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a large group, The inclusion of trainers creates status differentiation, and thus makes this a large group instead of a small group.
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secondary group
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characterized by voluntary membership in the group
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primary group
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are social groups, such as family or friends, composed of intimate face-to-face relationships that strongly influence the attitudes and ideals of those involved
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Which of the following is an example of a primary group?
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a family in which the parents live in California, one son lives in Colorado, and two daughters live in Florida
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The Asch Test provides insight into what concept?
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group conformity
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reference group
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a group that helps us understand or make sense of our position in society relative to other groups
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Social network
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A set of ties b/t individuals
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Tie
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set of stories explaining our relationship to each network member
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Narrative
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sum of series within series of ties
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Embeddedness
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refers to the degree to which ties are reinforced through indirect paths within a social network
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Strength of Weak Ties
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•weak ties=represent new info where you did not previously have information to •Why does it matter? Sometimes these weak ties b/t groups are very important bc they bring new info
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Marc wants to get an internship with a state legislator. He has talked to his family members and friends, but no one seems to have any useful contacts and he knows that the internships are highly competitive. One day he runs into a former classmate he hasn't seen for several years, and it turns out the classmate has a cousin who worked as the assistant campaign manager for a state senator in the most recent election. The classmate offers to put Marc in touch with his cousin. This is an example of what concept?
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the strength of weak ties
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structural hole
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•a gap between two people or two groups that have complementary resources and could benefit from having a closer connection •are gaps between network clusters.
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In a re-examination of Stanley Milgram's six degrees of separation theory, Duncan Watts estimated that about half of the population is connected to each other through six degrees. If these networks were mapped what would you call the dead ends where groups lack connections between clusters?
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structural holes
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Social capital
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•the information, knowledge of people or things, and connections that help individuals enter preexisting networks or gain power in them •Ex of social capital: neighborhood watch
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What social trend, related to social capital, did Robert Putnam focus on in his book Bowling Alone?
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People are less involved in communal activities and organizations.
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Sociologist Robert Wuthnow acknowledges there have been changes in Americans' sense of connection to one another and to communities, and he argues that _____.
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those connections haven't disappeared and that people aren't necessarily worse off because of these changes
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One advantage of network analysis over interpretive sociology is that _____.
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it can reveal patterns in social structures that might not ever become evident through answers to direct questions
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Organizational culture
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shared beliefs and behaviors within a social group
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organizational structure
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The ways in which power and authority are distributed within an organization
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A company changes from an assembly-line approach to product development to a team-based approach. This involves a fundamental change to the company's _____.
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organizational structure
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Many cell phone companies have similar offers and restrictions for changing numbers, adding numbers to a plan, getting a new phone, paying for minutes used beyond the allotted free minutes, and so on. These similarities can be said to be due to what processes?
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In this scenario, the cell phone companies have become more like each other. This is an example of institutional isomorphism.
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Deviance
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Any transgression of socially established norms
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Informal deviance
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•minor violations •Ex: anything that is not going to get you arrested (burping loudly)
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What is an example of informal deviance?
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telling the hostess of a dinner party that you didn't like the main dish
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Formal deviance
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•crime •Ex: hit a person in the face
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Definitions of deviant behavior tend to
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change over time and vary from one context to another
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social cohesion
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how people form social bonds, relate to each other, and get along on a daily basis
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Collective conscience
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shared assumptions about how the world works
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Mechanical solidarity
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Based on sameness: means everyone is pretty much the same; naturally there are differences but we're still the same
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Organic solidarity
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•Based on difference and interdependence •social cohesion based on the differences and the interdependence of specialized parts of society
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Why is a society bound by mechanical solidarity more likely to apply punitive justice (rather than rehabilitative justice) to a person who violates a law or social norm?
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People in such a society are bound by sameness and any violation of social norms must be punished severely in order to reinforce the boundaries of acceptable behavior.
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What is the irony of the relationship between deviance and society?
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Deviance helps hold societies together by uniting people in opposition to behavior that is deemed unacceptable.
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Punitive justices (mechanical)
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making the violator suffer, thus defining boundaries and strengthening the collective
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Rehabilitative justice (organic)
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•examines specific circumstances of deviants, attempts to reform them •rehabilitative social response is designed to transform the transgressor into a productive member of society.
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Which of the following is an example of rehabilitative justice?
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entering a work training program after being released from prison
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Social Control
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•Mechanisms that create normative compliance -Following the rules of group life
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Formal social sanctions
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Rules/ laws expressly set forth by a society
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According to Émile Durkheim's theory of suicide, what two social factors have the most impact on suicide rates?
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social integration and social regulation
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Labeling Theory
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•We notice how others see or label us •Our reactions to those labels help form the basis of our self-identity •a micro-level theory
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A child struggles to learn how to read and is frequently teased about it by his siblings and is referred to as \"slow\" by his parents and teachers. He underperforms in school and never thinks about going to college. Ultimately he drops out before graduating from high school, telling the school counselor that he's just not a smart guy who can learn from books. This is an example of which theory of deviance?
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labeling theory
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Primary Deviance
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•First act of rule breaking •Results in \"deviant\" label
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Secondary Deviance
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Subsequent acts of rule breaking occurring as a result of the deviant label
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Stigma
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•Negative label that changes a person's self-concept and social identity •Serious consequences
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Which of the following is an example of a stigma in U.S. society?
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having a speech impediment
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Broken windows theory of deviance
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Social and environmental context and cues impact individual actions
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There was an empty lot in a middle-class neighborhood that for years was maintained by a neighbor who lived next to it. That neighbor moved away and within a few weeks several bags of garbage and some old furniture were sitting in the lot. Shortly after that, an old car was parked in the lot and teenagers started to gather there to smoke and hang out. Within a few months, there was a mugging by the lot and the police made a couple of arrests for drug dealing there. This series of events is an example of what theory?
answer
broken windows theory
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Merton's strain theory
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Deviance occurs when all members of society do not have equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals
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Conformists
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Accept the goals of society and the means of achieving those goals
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Rebels
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Don't accept the goals of society of the means, so they creates their own goals using new means
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Retreatists
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Don't accept the goals of society or the means
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Ritualists
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Aren't interested in the goals of society, but accept the means
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Innovators
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Accepts the goals of society, but look for new ways of achieving those goals
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Crime Reduction
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•Reducing crime •Every mayor or police will take credit for the drop in crime •Can't predict crime: not possible
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Recidivism
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•Occurs when one who has been involved in the criminal justice system reverts back to crime •Evidence=historically high rates of incarceration
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Devah Pager's research on employment prospects for individuals with a prior criminal record exemplifies the serious consequences for certain stigmas. If an individual with a criminal record cannot easily find a job, due to this stigma, and thus decides to return to committing crimes to support their family, what sociological idea is this an example of?
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recidivism
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Informal social sanctions
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•Unspoken rules of social life -We are all simultaneously agents and objects of social order -Foundation of formal social control •understood by members of a social group without being openly expressed
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Anomie
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can be defined as a sense of aimlessness or despair that develops when an individual experiences a loss of order and normalcy from too little social regulation
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Differential opportunity theory links what two things in analyzing deviance?
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economic opportunities and crime rates
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White-collar crime
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refers to crimes committed by a professional against a corporation, agency, or other business
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What is one explanation for why it can be difficult to accurately measure changes in crime rates?
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Definitions of crimes change over time.
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deterrence theory of criminal justice
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arises from the view that crime results from a rational calculation of its costs and benefits
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In order to combat rising crime rates, a state introduces tough new sentencing laws. The hopes of politicians and law-enforcement officials for a subsequent decrease in crime are based on _____.
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deterrence theory
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The goal of correctional centers and mental health institutions to help inmates or patients learn to be productive members of society may be at odds with _____.
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the way life in a total institution can strip away a person's self-identity and leave him or her feeling lost and vulnerable
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Since the 1970s, incarcerations rates in the United States have
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risen dramatically
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One of the effects of mass incarceration in the United States has been
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the disenfranchisement of millions of former felons
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In Discipline and Punish, the French theorist Michel Foucault examines how the modern penal system _____.
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represents a transformation in social control
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Foucault's idea of the panopticon
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a metaphor for the general functioning of disciplinary techniques in society. In other words, the constant monitoring and policing that minority youth face
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The interview with Victor Rios highlights the differential treatment that minorities, particularly those in the inner-cities, receive from a young age. In his youth, Professor Rios encountered police intrusion upon his daily life often, including at school. What sociological idea epitomizes Professor Rios's experience?
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Foucault's panopticon
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