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Ethics

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The study of morality using the tools and methods of philosophy. AKA moral philosophy

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Normative ethics

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The search for, and justification of, moral standards, or norms.

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Metaethics

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The study of the meaning and justification of basic moral beliefs.

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Applied ethics

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The use of moral norms and concepts to resolve practical moral issues.

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Bioethics

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Applied ethics focused on health care, medical research, and medical technology.

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Subjective Relativism

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The view that right actions are those sanctioned by a person

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Cultural Relativism

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The view that right actions are those sanctioned by one's culture

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Moral Objectivism

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The view that there are moral norms or principles that are valid or true for everyone

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Argument

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At least one statement (premise) providing support for another statement (conclusion)

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Deductive argument

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An argument intended to give logically conclusive support to its conclusion

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Inductive argument

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An argument intended to give probable support to its conclusion

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Evaluating Arguments

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Step 1. Study the text until you thoroughly understand it. Step 2. Find the conclusion. Step 3. Identify the premises.

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Modus Ponens

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1. If p, then q. 2. p. 3. Therefore, q.

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Modus Tollens

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1. If p, then q. 2. Not q. 3. Therefore, not p.

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Moral Premises supported by

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Other moral principles Moral theories Considered moral judgments

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Moral Premises criticized by

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Counterexamples

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Moral Argument

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A moral argument is one whose conclusion is a moral statement. (action is right or wrong or that a persons motive is good or bad) A moral argument has (1) at least one moral premise and (2) at least one nonmoral premise.

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Moral Principles

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1. Autonomy 2. Beneficence 3. Utility 4. Justice

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Absolute principle

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An absolute principle applies without exceptions.

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Prima facie principle

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A moral principle that applies in all cases unless an exception is warranted.

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Moral Norms

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1. Normative Dominance 2. Universality 3. Impartiality 4. Reasonableness

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Moral Values

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Moral values concern things we judge to be morally good, bad, praiseworthy, or blameworthy—character or motives.

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Moral Obligations

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Moral obligations concern our duty—our actions.

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Morality

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• Actions are morally right or wrong. • Persons are morally good or bad. Beliefs regarding morally right and wrong actions and morally good and bad persons or character.

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Ethics is the study of morality using the tools and method of

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philosophy

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The use of moral norms and concepts to resolve practical moral issues is called

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applied ethics

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A key feature of moral norms is

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Normative dominance

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Paternalism

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The overriding of a person's actions or decision-making for his or her own good.

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The principle of respect for autonomy places no restraints on what can be done to an autonomous person.

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FALSE

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Nonmaleficence is the bedrock precept of codes of conduct for health care professionals.

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TRUE

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That equals should be treated equally is a basic precept of the principle of autonomy.

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FALSE

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Moral absolutism is the view that there are moral norms or principles that are valid or true for everyone.

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FALSE

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From the fact that cultures have divergent moral beliefs on an issue, it does not logically follow that there is no objective moral truth.

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TRUE

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Descriptive Ethics

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The study of morality using the methodology of science.

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divine command theory

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The view that right actions are those commanded by God and wrong actions are those forbidden by God. Many religious & nonreligious people reject theory b/c it implies that God's commands are arbitrary.

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Ethical relativism

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The view that moral standards are not objective but are relative to what individuals or cultures believe.

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Moral absolutism

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The belief that objective moral principles allow no exceptions or must be applied the same way in all cases and cultures.

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Moral objectivism

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The view that there are moral norms or principles that are valid or true for everyone.

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Autonomy

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Autonomous persons should be allowed to exercise their capacity for self-determination

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Beneficence

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We should do good to others and avoid doing them harm

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Utility

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We should produce the most favorable balance of good over bad for all concerned

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Justice

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We should treat equals equally Treating equals equally

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act-utilitarianism

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The view that the rightness of actions depends solely on the relative good produced by individual actions.

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consequentialist theory

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A moral theory asserting that the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences or results.

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contractarianism

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Moral or political theories based on the idea of a social contract or agreement among individuals for mutual advantage.

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deontological (or nonconsequentialist) theory

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A moral theory asserting that the rightness of actions is determined partly or entirely by their intrinsic nature.

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doctrine of double effect

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The principle that performing a bad action to bring about a good effect is never morally acceptable but that performing a good action may sometimes be acceptable even if it produces a bad effect.

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moral theory

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An explanation of why an action is right or wrong or why a person or a person's character is good or bad. Tells you what about an action makes it right. Alone are NOT the ultimate authority in moral deliberations; involve both general & particular (theory, principles, & considered judgements)

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natural law theory

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The view that right actions are those that conform to moral standards discerned in nature through human reason.

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rule-utilitarianism

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The view that a right action is one that conforms to a rule that, if followed consistently, would create for everyone involved the most beneficial balance of good over bad.

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utilitarianism

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The view that right actions are those that result in the most beneficial balance of good over bad consequences for everyone involved. CENTRAL MORAL PRINCIPLE : "Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By 'happiness' is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by 'unhappiness,' pain and the privation of pleasure."

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virtue ethics

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A moral theory that focuses on the development of virtuous character.

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Consequentialist moral theories insist that the rightness of actions depends solely on

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Their consequences or results

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Feminist ethics is an approach to morality aimed at

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Advancing women's interests and correcting injustices inflicted on women through social oppression and inequality.

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Kant says that through reason and reflection we can derive our duties from

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The categorical imperative.

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Natural law theory is the view that right actions are those that conform to moral standards discerned in nature through human reason.

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TRUE

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Natural law tradition resolves dilemmas through the principle of utility.

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FALSE

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Rawls's equal liberty principles says that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.

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TRUE

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According to virtue ethics, the central task in morality is knowing and applying principles.

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FALSE

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In the ethics of care, the heart of the moral life is feeling for and caring for those with whom you have a special, intimate connection.

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TRUE

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Kant's categorical imperative

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"act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law"

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Ethics of care

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the heart of the moral life is feeling for and caring for those with whom you have a special, intimate connection

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Moral Criteria of Adequacy

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Criterion1: consistency with our considered moral judgements Criterion2: consistency with the facts of the moral life Criterion3: resourcefulness in moral problem-solving

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distributive justice

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Justice regarding the fair distribution of society's advantages and disadvantages.

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egalitarian theories of justice

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Doctrines affirming that important benefits and burdens of society should be distributed equally.

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libertarian theories of justice

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Doctrines holding that the benefits and burdens of society should be distributed through the fair workings of a free market and the exercise of liberty rights of noninterference.

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managed care

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A system for providing health care to a particular group of patients (members of the system) using restraints to control costs and increase efficiency.

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utilitarian theories of justice

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Doctrines asserting that a just distribution of benefits and burdens is one that maximizes the net good (utility) for society.

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Libertarian

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The theory of justice insisting that the benefits and burdens of society should be distributed through the fair workings of a free market and the exercise of liberty rights of noninterference

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Norman Daniels believes that a strong right to health care can be derived from the principle of

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Fair equality of opportunity

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Allen Buchanan rejects

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A right to a decent minimum of care.

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Health insurance is so expensive that its high cost is the main reason for lack of coverage.

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TRUE

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Some theorists think that a legitimate question in allocating transplant organs is which potential recipients—if given the chance to live—are expected to contribute most to the good of society.

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TRUE

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The utilitarian purpose behind using quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) is

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To do the most good with the resources available

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Some argue that QALYs are unfair to

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Older people and the disabled.

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Most wealthy nations can provide maximum health care for everyone.

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FALSE

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The United States spends more on health care per capita than any other country.

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TRUE

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Utilitarian theories of justice affirm that important benefits and burdens of society should be distributed equally.

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FALSE

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moral theories are not relevant to our moral life

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FALSE

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Macroallocation

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Rationing on the level of the total health care system

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Logical argument and persuasion are essentially the same thing.

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FALSE

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author defends the position that there is no moral right to healthcare, and that while society may choose to help those in need out of compassion or benevolence, there is no obligation to do so

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engelhardt

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Act-utilitarianism is the view that

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The rightness of actions depends solely on the relative good produced by individual actions

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Although the United States spends more on health care than any other country, the quality of the care is not obviously better overall than that of other countries.

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TRUE

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A right not to be interfered with in obtaining something is known as a

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Negative right

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A moral theory explains

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why an action is right or wrong or why a person or a person's character is good or bad

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A deductive argument is intended to give

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Logically conclusive support to its conclusion

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Moral premises can be called into question by showing that they

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Conflict with credible principles, theories, or judgments

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Making, using, and critically assessing moral theory is a normal, pervasive feature of the moral life.

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TRUE

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If people's moral judgments differ from culture to culture, moral norms are relative to culture.

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FALSE

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The theory of justice insisting that the benefits and burdens of society should be distributed through the fair workings of a free market and the exercise of liberty rights of noninterference is

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libertarian

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According to John Harris, a key failing of QALYs is that they

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Cannot accommodate the subjectivity of people's assessments of the value of their own lives

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Cultural relativism logically entails tolerance for other cultures.

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FALSE

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John Stuart Mill claims that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others, and that this is compatible with the principle of utility.

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TRUE

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Kant's principle of respect for persons says that we should always treat persons

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Never merely as a means to an end

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The Congressional Budget Office has estimated that President Obama's Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) will _____.

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Reduce the number of uninsured by 32 million in 2019

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Classic utilitarianism depends heavily on a strong sense of impartiality.

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TRUE

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The misrepresentation of a person's views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed is known as

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The Straw man fallacy

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Any moral theory that is inconsistent with the facts of the moral life is

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Problematic

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The rationing of health care has never been tried in the United States.

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FALSE

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Immanuel Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative involves that we should always treat other rational beings as ends in themselves, never as mere means.

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TRUE

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The primary inspiration for contemporary versions of virtue ethics is

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Aristotle

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Norman Daniels argues that a strong right to health care can be derived from the principle of

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Fair equality of opportunity

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In the ethics of care, the heart of the moral life is best described as

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feeling for and caring for those with whom you have a special, intimate connection

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What a right to a decent minimum of care involves has been fairly easy to specify.

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FALSE

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The data that a moral theory is supposed to explain are

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Our considered moral judgments

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With regard to the issue of how to fairly allocate exotic (medical) lifesaving therapy, Nicholas Rescher argues that it is not ethically defensible to combine a points-based scoring system with an element of chance.

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FALSE

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In assessing an argument, the first order of business is to _____.

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Find the Conclusion

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"Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By 'happiness' is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by 'unhappiness,' pain and the privation of pleasure." This is a central moral principle of:

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Utilitarianism

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Rawls's equal liberty principles says that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.

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TRUE

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autonomy

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A person's rational capacity for self-governance or self-determination. Respect for persons as autonomous agents

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medical futility

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The alleged pointlessness or ineffectiveness of administering particular treatments.

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paternalism

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The overriding of a person's actions or decision-making for his or her own good. Utilitarianism allows for the possibility of paternalism. Kantian ethics rejects paternalism. Natural law theory is more paternalistic than Kantian ethics.

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strong paternalism

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The overriding of a person's actions or choices although he or she is substantially autonomous.

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weak paternalism

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Paternalism directed at persons who cannot act autonomously or whose autonomy is greatly diminished.

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Autonomy principle

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Autonomous persons should be allowed to exercise their capacity for self-determination

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The right to refuse treatment is problematic when

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1. the patients are "mature minors" 2. parents reject medical treatment for their minor children The courts have established the principle that a competent patient has a right to reject recommended treatments, even life-saving ones

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Nurses must come to terms with many of the same moral questions and principles that weigh so heavily on physicians:

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beneficence versus patient autonomy patient-provider confidentiality truth-telling refusal of treatment informed consent futile treatment

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Argument against full disclosure:

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1. truth-telling can be injurious, evoking in patients feelings of panic, hopelessness, fear, and depression. 2. Patients do not want to know the truth, especially if the prognosis is grim. 3. Physicians have no duty to tell patients the truth because patients are incapable of understanding it.

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Counterargument:

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1. Many exaggerate the harm done to patients by full disclosure, underestimate the beneficial effects of truthfulness, and fail to recognize that misleading or lying to patients can also do damage. 2. Data from surveys suggest that most patients really do prefer to be told the truth about their diagnosis. 3. (A) Even if communicating the whole truth is impossible, physicians still have an obligation to try to convey to patients the essential and relevant information; (B) conveying the "whole truth and nothing but the truth" is unnecessary.

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Main Argument in Favor of Truth-Telling

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We must always respect people's autonomy—their rational capacity for self-determination. Full disclosure respects their autonomy.

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Confidentiality

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An obligation or pledge of physicians, nurses, and others to keep secret the personal health information of patients unless they consent to disclosure ARGUMENTS FOR CONFIDENTIALITY: 1. Without respect for confidentiality, physicians would have a difficult time fulfilling their duty of beneficence. 2. Without respect for confidentiality, trust between physician and patient would break down. 3. Disclosure of confidential medical information could harm patients. 4. Persons have a right to privacy.

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Right to privacy

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The authority of persons to control who may possess and use information about themselves

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Paternalism directed at persons who cannot act autonomously or whose autonomy is greatly diminished is known as

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Weak paternalism

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The overriding of a person's actions or choices although he or she is substantially autonomous is called

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Strong paternalism

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The case of Helga Wanglie concerned what some have referred to as

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Medical futility

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The case of Elizabeth Bouvia concerned

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Refusal of treatment

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Generally, Kantian ethics rejects

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Paternalism

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Weak paternalism is not usually considered an objectionable violation of autonomy.

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TRUE

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Since the 1970s, several children have died after their parents refused medical treatment because of religious beliefs.

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TRUE

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For both physician and patients, the issue of futility is not a question of values.

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FALSE

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Physicians are obliged to regard every patient request as legitimate.

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FALSE

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According to Roman Catholic doctrine, a hopelessly ill patient has the right to refuse extraordinary life-sustaining treatments.

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TRUE

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Advocates of full disclosure insist that informed patients are

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Better patients

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The notion of patients imparting information to health professionals who promise, implicitly or explicitly, not to disclose that information to others is known as

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Confidentiality

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The authority of persons to control who may possess and use information about themselves is considered

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A right to privacy

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The case of Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California concerned a conflict between

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A duty of confidentiality and a duty to warn.

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The case of Carlos R. was mostly about

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Medical confidentiality versus a duty to warn.

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The Hippocratic Oath insists on a strong duty of truth-telling.

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FALSE

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Data from surveys suggest that most patients prefer to be told the truth about their diagnosis.

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TRUE

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The main argument in favor of truth-telling rests on the physician's duty of beneficence.

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FALSE

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Complete confidentiality in modern health care is entirely feasible.

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FALSE

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Most cancer patients want to know the details of their disease, whether the news is good or bad.

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TRUE

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Alan Goldman includes the following premise in his description of the basic argument for medical paternalism: disclosure of information is sometimes likely to be detrimental to the patient's health and may perhaps even hasten the patient's death.

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TRUE

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Many skeptics of full disclosure have argued that physicians have no duty to tell patients the truth because

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Patients are incapable of understanding the truth

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A DNR is a directive telling the medical staff to

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Forgo CPR on patients

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Early medical practice was strongly paternalistic.

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TRUE

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In the Hippocratic Oath, the physician's respect for confidentiality is

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clearly expressed

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Mark Siegler suggests that patients should be given better education about what 'medical confidentiality' means, and that patients should have the option to restrict access to specific parts of their medical records.

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TRUE

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A person is either fully autonomous or entirely lacking in autonomy.

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FALSE

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Terrence F. Ackerman defends the claim that illness is not an evil, on the basis that it does not compromise our efforts to control our lives.

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FALSE

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Disclosure of confidential medical information has exposed some patients to discrimination from insurance companies and employers.

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TRUE

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Kantian ethics implies an unambiguous duty to truth-telling and confidentiality.

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TRUE

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The utilitarian philosopher John Stuart Mill endorsed state paternalism.

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FALSE

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Court rulings have established that competent patients have a right to

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Reject recommended treatments

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Some reject the traditional model of nursing, arguing instead that the nurse's ultimate responsibility is to be

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An advocate for patients

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The law recognizes that the duty to respect confidentiality has exceptions.

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TRUE

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Physicians agree that the obligation to respect confidentiality is absolute.

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FALSE

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Ruth Macklin defends the view that multiculturalism requires us to accept practices that involve negative health consequences for patients.

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FALSE

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The traditional notion of a nurse is that of a care-giver subordinate to physicians and duty bound to carry out their directives for patient care and treatment. For many nurses this model seems fraught with conflicts between _____.

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The nurse's obligation to follow doctor's orders and her duty of beneficence toward her patients

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Alan Goldman argues that one reason why we should be reluctant to delegate medical decisions that have crucial effects on our lives to doctors, even despite their expertise, is because self-determination has great independent value.

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TRUE

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James Rachels claims that the loss of privacy is disturbing to us because controlling who has access to us, and information about us, allows us to maintain the variety of relationships with other people that we want to have.

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TRUE

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The Hippocratic Oath asserted patients' rights to decide about their own medical care.

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FALSE

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One reason why weak paternalism is not usually considered an objectionable violation of autonomy is because the relevant patients are already substantially nonautonomous.

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TRUE

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The physician's duties of confidentiality and preventing harm are

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Sometimes in conflict in HIV cases

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Mill thinks it is morally defensible to tell a lie if the greatest happiness of the greatest number is thereby maximized.

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TRUE

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The main argument in favor of truth-telling rests on the physician's duty of beneficence.

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FALSE

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The American Medical Association's code of medical ethics includes the declarations that patients have a basic right to available adequate healthcare, that physicians and society should continue to work towards this goal, and that physicians should assume a part of the responsibility for the medical care of those who cannot afford essential health care.

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TRUE

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In general, Kantian ethics views paternalism as

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A violation of autonomy

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According to Ruth Macklin, Western physicians should respect cultural and religious beliefs from diverse non-Western cultures as much as possible, but they need not embrace beliefs that can result in practices that are detrimental to patients or others.

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TRUE

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Many skeptics of full disclosure have argued that physicians have no duty to tell patients the truth because

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Patients are incapable of understanding the truth

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For an act-utilitarian, the morality of truth-telling and confidentiality must be judged

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case by case

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Informed consent

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The action of an autonomous, informed person agreeing to submit to medical treatment or experimentation.

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Conditions for informed consent

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The patient is competent to decide. She gets an adequate disclosure of information. She understands the information. She decides about the treatment voluntarily. She consents to the treatment.

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Competence

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The ability to render decisions about medical interventions

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Courts and legislatures have mandated the disclosure of:

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The nature of the procedure The risks of the procedure The alternatives to the proposed procedure, including the option of no treatment The expected benefits of the proposed treatment

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Waiver

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The patient's voluntary and deliberate giving up of the right to informed consent. The patient's voluntary and deliberate giving up of the right of informed consent is called

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Therapeutic privilege

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The withholding of relevant information from a patient when the physician believes disclosure would likely do harm The withholding of relevant information from a patient when the physician believes disclosure would likely do harm is known as

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Clinical trial

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A scientific study designed to systematically test a medical intervention in humans

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Blinding

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A procedure for ensuring that subjects and researchers do not know which interventions the subjects receive (standard treatment, new treatment, or placebo)

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Placebo

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An inactive or sham treatment

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Randomization

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The assigning of subjects randomly to both experimental and control groups

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Drug testing stages of clinical trials

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Phase I trial—Tests the drug in a few people for safety and adverse reactions and ascertains safe and unsafe doses (nontherapeutic). Phase II trial—Investigators give the drug to larger groups of subjects to get a preliminary indication of its effectiveness and to do more assessments of safety. Phase III trial—Researchers try to finally establish whether the drug is effective, determine how it compares with other proven treatments, and learn how to use it in the safest way (therapeutic; largest trials; capable of providing definitive answers about a treatment's worth).

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Ethical Requirements for Clinical Trials

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Subjects must give their informed voluntary consent to participate. The study must be designed to minimize risks to subjects and offer an acceptable balance of risks and benefits. Subjects must be selected fairly to avoid exploiting or unjustly excluding them. The subjects' privacy should be protected, and the confidentiality of research data must be preserved. Before the research is conducted, it must be reviewed and approved by an independent panel.

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Beneficence

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Doing good for, and avoiding harm to, persons

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Moral Justification for Clinical Trials

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Therapeutic trials are usually justified by the potential good to the subjects and to future patients or society. Nontherapeutic trials are often justified by significant potential good to society.

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Research on the Vulnerable

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The essential moral conflict is between (1) the duty to shield the vulnerable from abuse & (2) the aspiration to benefit them or society through needed research.

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The ability to render decisions about medical interventions is known as

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competence

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Usually patients are presumed to be competent unless there are good reasons to think otherwise.

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TRUE

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A credible and severe threat of harm or force to control another has been called

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Coercion

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Philosophers have justified informed consent through appeals to the principles of autonomy and beneficence

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TRUE

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For a clinical trial to be morally permissible, subjects must give their informed voluntary consent.

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TRUE

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Many critics see huge discrepancies between the ethical ideal of informed consent and the laws or rules meant to implement it.

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TRUE

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Physicians who are in doubt about the relative merits of the treatments in a study are said to be

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In equipoise

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The requirement of informed consent can be derived directly from Kantian ethics.

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TRUE

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For most clinical trials, randomization is unnecessary.

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FALSE

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Usually the safety and effectiveness of a treatment can be established by a single clinical trial.

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FALSE

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The action of an autonomous, informed person agreeing to submit to medical treatment or experimentation is known as

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informed consent

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The heart of the modern doctrine of informed consent is

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Kantian

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Out of the post-World War II trial of Nazi doctors came the Nuremberg Code.

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TRUE

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Patients are legitimately judged incompetent in cases of

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Mental retardation and dementia

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A scientific study designed to test a medical intervention in humans is known as

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A clinical trial

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The use of placebos in control groups is

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Often cause for serious moral concern

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Robert Levine claims that one part of a practical way to address issues created by cultural differences when obtaining informed consent in human subjects research is to require review of the research by research ethics committees that are ideally based in the communities in which research is to be conducted.

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TRUE

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Probably the chief argument against the third-world AZT studies is that in using a placebo (no-treatment) group, some of the subjects were deprived of an effective treatment that could have prevented many babies from being infected with HIV.

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TRUE

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Incompetence does not come in degrees.

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FALSE

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In the 1970s, courts began to insist that the adequacy of disclosure should be judged by what patients themselves find relevant to their situation.

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TRUE

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Informed consent requires that patients understand all information given to them.

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FALSE

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Some theorists have defined informed consent as autonomous authorization.

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TRUE

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The infamous experiment to study the damaging effects of untreated syphilis in 600 poor black men is known as

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The Tuskegee study

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An indispensable feature of most clinical trials is

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Blinding

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A widely accepted proviso in human research is that the use of placebos is unethical when effective treatments are already available.

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TRUE

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It is generally understood that consent to do research on children is not required.

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FALSE

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It is generally agreed that subjects may not be paid under any circumstances.

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FALSE

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viability

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The development stage when the fetus can survive outside the uterus. The development stage at approximately 23 to 24 weeks of pregnancy when the fetus may survive outside the uterus is known as

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In Roe v. Wade, the Court saw a guaranteed right of personal privacy in

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The Fourteenth Amendment

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A key premise in many arguments against abortion is that

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The unborn is an innocent person from the moment of conception.

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Mary Anne Warren identifies five traits that are "most central" to personhood and declares that a fetus

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Has none of these traits.

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Abortion liberals contend that even if infants are not persons, infanticide is

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Rarely permissible

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Almost half of all pregnancies are unintended.

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TRUE

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Judith Jarvis Thomson argues that even if the unborn is a person from the moment of conception, abortion may still be morally justified.

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TRUE

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Some reject Thomson's argument by contending that it holds only if the woman bears no responsibility for her predicament.

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TRUE

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The natural law position on abortion as articulated in Roman Catholicism is that the fetus is an innocent person from the moment of viability.

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FALSE

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Some people opposed to abortion argue that the fetus is a potential person and thus has the same right to life as any existing person.

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TRUE

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abortion

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The ending of a pregnancy.

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induced abortion

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The intentional termination of a pregnancy through drugs or surgery.

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quickening

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At about 16 to 20 weeks of pregnancy, a pregnant woman's experience of fetal movement inside her.

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spontaneous abortion (miscarriage)

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An abortion resulting from natural causes such as a birth defect or maternal injury.

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therapeutic abortion

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Abortion performed to preserve the life or health of the mother.

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In vitro fertilization (IVF)

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The uniting of sperm and egg in a laboratory dish, instead of inside a woman's body

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In the debates on IVF, John Robertson argues for

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Procreative liberty

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A woman who gestates a fetus for others, usually for a couple or another woman, is called a

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Surrogate The classic case of Baby M concerned Surrogacy

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The asexual production of a genetically identical entity from an existing one is known as

answer

Cloning

question

Reproductive cloning

answer

Cloning aimed at the live birth of an individual.

question

therapeutic or research cloning

answer

Cloning done for purposes other than producing a live individual.

question

infertility

answer

The inability to get pregnant after one year of unprotected sex.

question

cycle

answer

(in assisted reproductive technology [ART]) A sequence of steps involved in trying to achieve pregnancy through ART, typically extending from egg retrieval to embryo transfer.

question

IVF cycles pose health risks for both woman and child.

answer

TRUE

question

The strongest arguments for IVF have appealed to individual autonomy or reproductive rights.

answer

TRUE

question

Mary Anne Warren argues that IVF comes with substantial risks and burdens and that women are too constrained or coerced by society to decide about the technology for themselves.

answer

FALSE

question

Probably the most pervasive—and perhaps the strongest—argument against surrogacy is that surrogacy arrangements amount to baby-selling.

answer

TRUE

question

Genetic determinism is a myth.

answer

TRUE

question

chromosome

answer

A string-like, gene-containing molecule in the nucleus of a cell.

question

eugenics

answer

The deliberate attempt to improve the genetic makeup of humans by manipulating reproduction.

question

gene

answer

The fundamental unit of biological inheritance.

question

gene therapy

answer

The manipulation of someone's genetic material to prevent or treat disease.

question

genetic discrimination

answer

The use of genetic information by employers, insurance companies, and others to discriminate against or stigmatize people.

question

genetic testing

answer

Procedures used to check for genetic disorders by looking for changes in a person's DNA.

question

genome

answer

An organism's entire complement of DNA.

question

Genetic discrimination is prohibited by law.

answer

true

question

Those who believe that embryos have the moral status of persons are likely to view embryonic stem cell research as

answer

Immoral

question

Currently human cloning seems likely to result in

answer

High rates of serious birth defects

question

Surrogate arrangements are generally simple and legally straightforward.

answer

FALSE

question

The core question in public disputes about embryonic stem cells is whether it is morally permissible to destroy human embryos in a search for cures.

answer

TRUE

question

Those who believe that early embryos have less than full moral status but are still deserving of some respect usually regard embryonic stem cell research as

answer

Morally acceptable

question

Many symptomless people at risk for Huntington's disease decide not to be tested.

answer

TRUE

question

The Hebrew and Christian scriptures denounce abortion.

answer

FALSE

question

The risk of death associated with abortion performed at eight weeks or earlier is

answer

One death per 1 million abortions

question

Negative eugenics is widely regarded as

answer

Permissible or obligatory

question

Conservatives on the abortion issue charge that liberals' standards for personhood imply that

answer

Cognitively impaired individuals are not persons

question

An animal or human clone is

answer

Not a perfect copy of an individual

question

The Roman Catholic position on abortion incorporates

answer

The doctrine of double effect

question

Some bioethicists have insisted that discrimination or disrespect for persons is not entailed by genetic testing.

answer

TRUE

question

Direct-to-consumer genetic tests are reliable, useful, and safe.

answer

FALSE

question

Late-term abortions are

answer

rare

question

Judith Jarvis Thomson argues that

answer

Unjustly killing a fetus is always wrong

question

Some have objected to IVF because of its potential for causing birth defects and disease in children.

answer

TRUE

question

Multiple pregnancies resulting from IVF cycles raise the risks of children's life and health.

answer

TRUE

question

Most Western industrialized countries have lower abortion rates than the United States does.

answer

TRUE

question

The use of genetic information by employers, insurance companies, and others to discriminate against or stigmatize people is known as

answer

Genetic discrimination

question

The uniting of sperm and egg in a laboratory dish, instead of inside a woman's body, is called

answer

In vitro fertilization (IVF)

question

Some argue against surrogacy by claiming that it amounts to

answer

Baby-selling

question

Even when genetic tests correctly predict a genetic disorder, they usually cannot foretell how severe its symptoms will be or when they will appear.

answer

TRUE

question

Some argue that gene therapy should not be permitted because it amounts to

answer

Eugenics

question

In Roe v. Wade, the Court balanced the woman's right and state interests according to trimester of pregnancy.

answer

TRUE

question

Most of the moral controversy over embryonic stem cells has focused on their source, which is mainly

answer

Blastocysts

question

A common charge against genetic testing to prevent birth impairments is that it amounts to disrespect or discrimination against

answer

People with disabilities

question

Mary Anne Warren identifies five traits that are "most central" to personhood and declares that a fetus

answer

Has none of these traits

question

Fertility clinics store frozen embryos but never destroy them.

answer

FALSE

question

Euthanasia

answer

directly or indirectly bringing about the death of another person for that person's sake

question

Active euthanasia

answer

Performing an action that directly causes someone to die; "mercy killing." active euthanasia is killing

question

Passive euthanasia

answer

Allowing someone to die by not doing something that would prolong life. passive euthanasia is letting die.

question

Voluntary euthanasia

answer

Euthanasia performed when competent patients voluntarily request or agree to it.

question

Involuntary euthanasia

answer

Bringing about someone's death against her will or without asking for her consent although she is competent to decide.

question

Nonvoluntary euthanasia

answer

Euthanasia performed when patients are not competent to choose it for themselves and have not previously disclosed their preferences.

question

Some argue that there is no morally significant difference between mercifully killing a patient and mercifully letting the patient die.

answer

TRUE

question

Physician-Assisted Suicide

answer

A patient's taking his or her own life with the aid of a physician. The AMA has denounced PAS. Many people (including some physicians) support its use. It is legal only in Oregon.

question

Definitions of Death

answer

Traditional view—Death is the cessation of breathing and heartbeat. Standard in law and medicine—Whole brain view: An individual should be judged dead when all brain functions permanently stop. Alternative notion—Higher brain standard: Individuals are dead when the higher brain functions responsible for consciousness permanently close down.

question

Active Voluntary Euthanasia Arguments for:

answer

Arguments for: Autonomy: Respecting people's inherent right of self-determination means respecting their autonomous choices about ending their lives. Beneficence: If we are in a position to relieve the severe suffering of another without excessive cost to ourselves, we have an obligation to do so.

question

Active Voluntary Euthanasia Arguments against:

answer

Arguments against: Moral difference between killing and letting die: Killing is worse than letting die, so giving a patient a lethal injection to effect an easy death is wrong, but disconnecting his feeding tube may be permissible. Moral difference between intending someone's death and not intending but foreseeing it: The former is wrong; the latter is permissible.

question

Performing an action that directly causes someone to die—what most people think of as "mercy killing"—is called

answer

Active euthanasia

question

Passive euthanasia (both voluntary and nonvoluntary) is

answer

Legal

question

The definition of death that has become the standard in legal and medical matters is called

answer

The whole brain view.

question

The strongest argument offered to support active voluntary euthanasia is derived from

answer

The principle of autonomy.

question

Those who oppose euthanasia often draw a sharp distinction between

answer

Killing and letting die

question

The American Medical Association has denounced physician-assisted suicide as unethical and inconsistent with physicians' duty to promote healing and preserve life.

answer

TRUE

question

Some argue against active voluntary euthanasia by advancing a distinction between intending someone's death and not intending but foreseeing it.

answer

TRUE

question

Slippery slope arguments are seldom used in debates about euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide.

answer

FALSE

question

The mere possibility of abuses arising from allowing euthanasia or assisted suicide is in itself a good reason to ban the practices.

answer

FALSE

question

Most ethicists agree that the horrific suffering of dying patients can always be relieved without resort to lethal means.

answer

FALSE

question

Injecting a terminally ill patient with a lethal drug without the patient's consent is

answer

Active nonvoluntary euthanasia

question

Injecting a terminally ill patient with a lethal drug with the patient's consent is

answer

Active voluntary euthanasia

question

The American Medical Association has denounced physician-assisted suicide as unethical and inconsistent with physicians' duty to promote healing and preserve life.

answer

TRUE

question

Performing an action that directly causes someone to die—what most people think of as "mercy killing"—is called

answer

Active euthanasia

question

The moral principle of individual well-being can be used to support an argument defending voluntary active euthanasia.

answer

TRUE

question

The principle of justice provides a stronger source of support for active voluntary euthanasia than the principle of autonomy.

answer

FALSE

question

Scientific research on whether policies permitting euthanasia or assisted suicide lead to unjustified killing is

answer

Scant

question

Withdrawing life-sustaining measures from a terminally ill patient with the patient's consent is

answer

Passive voluntary euthanasia

question

Withdrawing life-sustaining measures from a terminally ill patient without the patient's consent is

answer

Passive nonvoluntary euthanasia

question

Daniel Callahan defends the position that a person's right of self-determination can justify someone else killing that person for mercy's sake.

answer

FALSE

question

The Philosophers' Brief includes the argument that states cannot deny people wishing to die a chance to demonstrate that their decisions are informed, stable, and free.

answer

TRUE

question

Some argue that directly intending a patient's death may be permissible because, to the patient, death

answer

May not be a harm

question

Doctors are unanimous in their rejection of physician-assisted suicide.

answer

FALSE

question

Oregon's 1994 Death With Dignity Act does not permit doctors to prescribe drugs that terminally ill patients can use to commit suicide.

answer

FALSE

question

The Smith-Jones thought experiment provides support for the position that active euthanasia is not morally worse than passive euthanasia.

answer

TRUE

question

The whole brain view is the standard definition of death in law and medicine.

answer

TRUE

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