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Dash (Definition)

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Use a Dash to prepare for a list, a restatement, an amplification, or a dramatic shift. When typing, use two hyphens to form a dash (--) Don't overuse the dash because it creates choppy writing.

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Dash (Example 1)

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Everything that went wrong -- from the prowler at her window to yesterdays' collision with the traffic cop -- was blamed on me.

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Dash (Example 2)

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We were all prepared for her to call off her engagement-- and she came back married!

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Hyphen (Definition)

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Indicates compound numbers, add some prefixes, used to avoid confusion with some words, and to separate broken words in a manuscript.

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Hyphen (Example 1)

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Twenty-five people or two-thirds of the participants are Nazi zombies.

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Hyphen (Example 2)

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The ex-officer is not as all-knowing as his self-important manner indicates, and I am sorry he is the president-elect of our organization.

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Hyphen (Example 3)

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The lines will re-form after the manager has had time to re-enter the theater after helping older custom-ers get out of the building for the safety drill.

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Ellipsis (Definition)

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An Ellipsis are three spaced periods ( . . . ) and are used to indicate that you've deleted information from a quotation. Do not use ellipsis at the beginning or end of a quotation.

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Ellipsis (Example 1)

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Smith remarks "When only those who are educated vote. . . the will of the people is not clear."

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Ellipsis (Example 2)

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Wilson states that "Only those who care about the issues should vote. . . The rest of the citizens should accept the choices of those who are informed."

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Parentheses (Definition)

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A parentheses is used to enclose supplemental material, minor digressions, and afterthoughts. You can also use it to enclose letters or numbers in a list. Use it sparingly.

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Parentheses (Example 1)

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After checking her pulse, blood pressure, and temperature (the usual vital signs), the nurse left Joanne alone again.

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Parentheses (Example 2)

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The leader clarified that only the following equipment was acceptable on the mission: (1) a sharp knife, (2) a heavy blanket, (3) wood matches, and (4)a small mirror.

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Apostrophes (Definition)

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Apostrophes are used to show possession and contractions.

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Apostrophes (Example 1)

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Changes in policy caused Fred's insurance to go up, and now he can't pay.

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Apostrophes (Example 2)

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Where the 1920s were fun, the 1930s were depressing.

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Comma (Rule One)

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To separate all items in a list. The girl was told to bring milk, bread, eggs, and apples home from the store.

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Comma (Rule Two)

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To set off appositives. Terry Howe, the team captain, made the tackle.

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Comma (Rule Three)

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To set off words in direct address I wonder, Mom, when you'll be serving dinner.

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Comma (Rule Four)

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To set off parenthetical expressions or interrupters. Why, yes, I use that brand of toothpaste too.

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Comma (Rule Five)

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To set off non-essential clauses. Jay Meyers, who applied for three jobs, is now employed at Mcdonalds.

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Comma (Rule Six)

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To set off non-essential participial phrases. The workman, yawning with fatigue, walked to the elevator area.

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Comma (Rule Seven)

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To avoid confusion. All the problems that we feared would happen, happened.

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Comma (Rule Eight)

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To set off every item after the first dates and addresses. The victim was born on June 8, 1917, in Reno, Nevada, and has since lived in Chico, California.

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Comma (Rule Nine)

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Before and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet when they join main clauses. He's a convincing talker, but his facts are usually inaccurate.

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Comma (Rule Ten)

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After an introductory word group. To get there before it turns dark, we will drive without stopping for dinner.

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Comma (Rule Eleven)

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Between adjectives preceding a noun only when those adjectives can be separated with "and" instead of a comma or can be scrambled. The young, foolish squirrel ran up the tall pine tree.

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Semi-Colon (Definition One)

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A semi-colon (;) is used to join sentences not joined by the conjunctions and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.

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Semi-Colon (Example One)

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Helen often cooked elaborate meals on weekends; she used leftovers for quick meals during the week.

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Semi-Colon (Definition Two)

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A semi-colon is used between main clauses joined by the words accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, instead, moreover, nevertheless, thus, otherwise, similarly, still, therefore, for example, for instance, that is, in fact. These words are followed by a comma because they function as an introductory word for the second part of the complex sentence.

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Semi-Colon (Example Two)

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I don't swim very well; however, Bruce Kidder promised to teach me this summer.

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Semi-Colon (Definition Three)

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A semi-colon is used between main clauses if there are commas within the clauses, or to join items in a series if the items contain commas.

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Semi-Colon (Example Three)

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Classic science fiction stories include Star Trek, with Mr.Spock and his large pointed ears; Battlestar Galatica, with the Cylon raiders; and Star wars, with Hans Solo, Luke Skywalker, and Darth Vader.

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Colon (Definition One)

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A colon is used to announce a list.

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Colon (Example One)

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All hikers should bring them the following: a flashlight, an axe, and a tent.

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Colon (Definition Two)

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A colon announces an explanation.

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Colon (Example Two)

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Preston slapped his forehead: he had forgotten to put oregano in the spaghetti sauce.

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Colon (Definition Three)

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A colon announces a quotation.

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Colon (Example Three)

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Atticus often gives some advice to his children: "It's a sin to kill a mockingbird."

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Colon (Definition Four)

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A colon is also used for conventional items.

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Colon (Example Four)

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3:25 PM, 75:97-103, John 3:16

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Underlining & Italics

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they are used for titles of movies, books, magazines, newspapers, album titles, plays, journals, and most published works.

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Quotation Marks

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They are used in sections of books, articles, chapters, songs, and poems.

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Pronoun Agreement (Definition One)

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Watch pronoun number agreement, if you begin talking about one person, maintain the singular pronoun reference or rephrase to the plural.

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Pronoun Agreement (Example One)

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swimmers must be able to keep their strokes even and full.

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Pronoun Agreement (Definition Two)

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When making references in which the gender of the person is unknown or where a non-specific individual is referred to, you may choose one of the following:

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Pronoun Agreement (Example Two)

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A medical student must study hard if he or she wants to succeed, Medical students must study hard if they want to succeed, A medical student must study hard to succeed.

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Subject-Verb agreement (Definition)

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Subjects and verbs must agree in number.

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Subject-Verb agreement (Example)

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Dancing and aerobic exercises are healthy activities.

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Comma Splices and Run-on sentences

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Avoid comma splices (joining two sentences together with a comma). Avoid run-ons (joining two sentences together with NO punctuation).

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Comma Splices and Run-on sentences (Corrections)

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• Use a semi-colon to connect the two sentences ( ; ) OR • Separate them into two sentences with a period and a capital letter OR • Join them using a comma and a conjunction (ONLY and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet)

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Comma Splices and Run-on sentences (Example 1)

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The main reason the battle ended was lack of ammunition; neither army.... The main reason the battle ended was lack of ammunition. Neither army.... The main reason the battle ended was lack of ammunition, for neither army...

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Comma Splices and Run-on sentences (Example 2)

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Gestures are a means of communication for everyone; they are... Gestures are a means of communication for everyone. They are... Gestures are a means of communication for everyone, but they are...

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Fragment (Definition)

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Avoid fragments; be sure sentences have a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

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Fragment (Example)

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He was sure he could find the cure. Which he did within two years. it should be... He was sure he could find the cure which he was able to do within two years.

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Past Tense (Definition)

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Actions completed in the past.

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Past Tense (Example)

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I spoke

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Present Tense (Definition)

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Actions occurring at the time of speaking or regularly.

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Present Tense (Example)

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I speak

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Future Tense (Definition)

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Actions that will occur in the future.

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Future Tense (Example)

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I will speak

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Past Perfect Tense (Definition)

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Actions completed by the time of another past action.

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Past Perfect Tense (Example)

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I had spoken

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Present Perfect Tense (Definition)

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Actions completed by the present time.

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Present Perfect Tense (Example)

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I have spoken

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Future Perfect Tense (Definition)

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Actions completed before some future time.

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Future Perfect Tense (Example)

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I will have spoken

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Literature Tense (Definition)

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When writing about literature, write in the present tense.

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Literature Tense (Example)

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Atticus gives Scout good advice about getting along in school.

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Parallel Constructions (Definition)

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Use parallel sentence construction to express parallel ideas. Single words should be balanced with single words, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses.

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Balance parallel ideas using correlative conjunctions (Definition)

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• These joining words come in pairs: either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, both...and, whether...or. • The grammatical structure following the second half of the pair should be the same structure as that following the first half.

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Parallel Constructions (Example 1)

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Eddie is responsible for stocking merchandise, writing orders, and the sale of computers." should be... Eddie is responsible for stocking merchandise, writing orders, and selling computers. (using -ing forms for all items)

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Parallel Constructions (Example 2)

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At Lincoln High School, vandalism can result in suspension or even being expelled from school. should be... At Lincoln High School, vandalism can result in suspension or expulsion from school. (using parallel nouns)

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Parallel Constructions (Example 3)

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Humid air is responsible for encouraging mildew, wood becoming warped, and rusty metal. should be... Humid air is responsible for encouraging mildew, warping wood, and rusting metal. (using -ing forms)

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Balance parallel ideas using correlative conjunctions (Example 1)

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The shutters were not only too long but were also really wide. should be.... The shutters were not only too long but also too wide. ("too wide" parallels "too long")

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Balance parallel ideas using correlative conjunctions (Example 2)

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I was advised to either change my flight or take the train. should be... I was advised either to change my flight or to take the train. ("to take" parallels "to change")

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Placement of Modifiers (Definition 1)

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Modifiers, should point clearly to the words they modify.

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Placement of Modifiers (Example 1)

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Our team didn't even score once. should be... Our team didn't score even once. ("even" modifies "once", not "score")

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Placement of Modifiers (Example 2)

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All wicker is not antique. should be... Not all wicker is antique. ("not" modifies "wicker" not "antique")

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Placement of Modifiers (Example 3)

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The king returned to the clinic where he underwent heart surgery in 1992 in a limousine sent by the White House. (this sounds as if the surgery occurred in the limousine) should be... Traveling in a limousine sent by the White House, the king returned to the clinic where he underwent heart surgery in 1992 (the "traveling" phrase belongs next to the word it modifies - "king")

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Placement of Modifiers (Example 4)

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The robber was described as a six-foot-tall man with a mustache, weighing 150 pounds. should be... The robber was described as a 150 pound, six-foot-tall man with a mustache. (the man, not the mustache, weighed 150 pounds)

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Placement of Modifiers (Definition 2)

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Avoid dangling modifiers that fail to refer logically to any word in the sentence.

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Placement of Modifiers (Example 5)

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√ Opening the window to let out a huge bumblebee, the car accidentally swerved into an oncoming car. (implies the car opened the window) should be... When the driver opened the window to let out a huge bumblebee, he accidentally swerved into an oncoming car.

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Pronoun Reference

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Avoid unclear pronoun reference. The word the pronoun is standing in for is called its antecedent. Pronouns should always have clear antecedents, so there is no question of who or what is being referred to.REMEMBER - WHO refers to people; WHICH and THAT do NOT refer to people.

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Ambiguous Reference (Definition)

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When the pronoun could refer to two possible antecedents.

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Ambiguous Reference (Example)

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When Gloria set the pitcher on the glass-topped table, it broke. (does "it" refer to the pitcher or the table?) should be... When Gloria set it on the glass-topped table, the pitcher broke. (here "it" clearly refers to the pitcher)

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Implied Reference (Definition)

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When the pronoun refers to a word that is not in the sentence.

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Implied Reference (Example)

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After braiding Ann's hair, Sue decorated them with ribbons. ("them" refers to braids, a word not in this sentence) should be... After braiding Ann's hair, Sue decorated the braids with ribbons.

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VAGUE REFERENCE OF "THIS", "THAT", "WHICH", AND "IT" (Definition)

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these pronouns need to refer to specific nouns

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VAGUE REFERENCE OF "THIS", "THAT", "WHICH", AND "IT" (Example 1)

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More and more we are victims of serious crimes. We learn to accept this with minor irritation. ("this" doesn't refer clearly to any word, but to a whole idea) should be... .....serious crimes. We learn to accept our fate with minor irritations.

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VAGUE REFERENCE OF "THIS", "THAT", "WHICH", AND "IT" (Example 2)

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Romeo and Juliet are both too young to have acquired much wisdom, which accounts for their deaths. should be.... ....much wisdom, a fact which accounts for their deaths.

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INDEFINITE REFERENCE OF "THEY", "IT", OR "YOU" (Definition)

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These pronouns need to refer to specific nouns

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INDEFINITE REFERENCE OF "THEY", "IT", OR "YOU" (Example 1)

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Sometimes a list of ways to save energy is included with the gas bill. For example, they suggest..... should be... ....is included with the gas bill. For example, the gas company suggests...

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INDEFINITE REFERENCE OF "THEY", "IT", OR "YOU" (Example 2)

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In the encyclopedia it states that.... should be... The encyclopedia states that....

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