In Outlining the Central Elements of Schmidt’s Schema Theory of Motor Learning Essay Example

different variations of it. This is because the correct action provides the perceptual trace feedback, and practicing movements different from the correct action does not strengthen the perceptual trace. In a review by Shapiro and Schmidt (1982), it was found that there is no clear evidence that variable practice is less effective than practicing at the transfer target for adults. However, for children, practicing with variability was actually more effective than practicing at the transfer target itself.

This challenges Adam’s belief in the necessity of practicing at the target criteria. However, Schmidt (1982, p. 482), despite criticizing Adams' theory, does acknowledge that it sparked significant research and thinking and paved the way for newer theories. In fact, in 1975, Schmidt introduced his Schema Theory, which incorporated certain aspects of Adam's theory, such as subjective reinforcement, while also adding his own ideas. Schmidt was concerned that Adam's theory would result in memory storage issues and instead proposed the idea of generalized patterns of movement.

The concept is that when a movement is learned, it can be reused and adapted in similar situations, reducing the amount of memory needed. These reused movements are known as Generalised Motor Programmes or Schema's. By using these Schema's, less memory is required and they may also explain how people perform new tasks or tasks in unfamiliar situations. This is different from Adam's theory, which states that a new motor program is needed for each new movement, creating a perceptual trace.

The schema theory deals with the modification of parameters after selecting the Generalised Motor Programme to enable new movements. For instance, if the movement involves throwing, the distance

and speed are adjusted based on the required throwing distance. Following the execution of a movement using a generalised motor programme, four elements are stored. 1) The initial conditions, encompassing factors such as object weight, body position, and weather conditions. 2) The assigned parameters, which include force, speed, and direction. 3) Movement outcome.

The information gained from what happened (knowledge of results) and sensory consequences, such as how the movement felt and looked, is not stored permanently. Instead, it is stored until the relationship between them has been extracted and a rule representing the relations between the variables is formed. However, Schema theory does not explain how generalized motor programs are initially formed or how the individual makes the first response when no schema exists, thus no prerequisite for the movement.

According to Schmidt (1982, p. 488), the production of a particular movement outcome in the future does not require it to have been produced previously. Schmidt argues that the ability to produce new movements is based on a rule regarding parameter selection, which is determined by how similar movements were performed in the past. He presents evidence that after practicing a variety of movements, novel movements can be performed with the same level of accuracy as if the novel action had been repeated exclusively. This suggests that motor learning might be rule-based rather than focused on learning specific responses. Schema theory incorporates two main schemas: Recall Schema and Recognition Schema.

The movement that occurs is performed by recall memory, while the evaluation of the movement is the responsibility of recognition memory. Recall memory generates quick response movements and gathers more information

each time it is used, helping the individual establish a relationship that enables them to execute the movement accurately. Recognition memory evaluates the feedback provided after the movement's completion, considering initial conditions, past actual outcomes, and past sensory consequences. This enables the subject to identify errors.

The theory suggests that error detection is not possible after a slow movement because the capability for error detection is utilized in producing the slow movement. Errors can be detected after a rapid movement but not during. Evaluation for a slow movement happens when there is time for the individual to assess the consequences of the action. Evaluation can occur during the execution of slow movements and these are referred to as expected sensory consequences. There are similarities to Adams' theory as both theories involve two agents, with one producing the movement and another providing feedback.

Despite various factors influencing the retention and identification schema, the increased diversity of practice will enhance both, implying a potential connection between the two processes. According to Schmidt (1982, p. 488), it is predicted that engaging in different movement outcomes using the same program will offer a broad range of experiences that can be used to develop a rule or schema. In essence, individuals who encounter various movements during a task will be more proficient in executing a new version of that task compared to those who lack such diversity during practice (Moxley 1979).

The theory of schema states that a greater amount of variability within a schema will result in a more powerful memory and recognition of schemas. Shapiro ; Schmidt (1982) argued that variability has a positive

impact on motor learning, especially in children, which contradicts Adams' beliefs. As previously mentioned, research indicates that motor learning may involve the learning of rules rather than specific responses, especially for open skills. Therefore, Schema Theory provides a viable alternative to Adams' Closed Loop Theory.

In contrast to Adams, Schmidt's Schema Theory considers a wider range of movements commonly used in daily activities. Adams focuses on slow paced, linear positioning responses, whereas Schmidt's theory addresses discrete, rapidly executed tasks, rapid ballistic tasks, externally paced tasks, and self paced tasks. However, it does not include an explanation for tasks with a continuous nature. Nevertheless, Schmidt's theory provides a more thorough explanation for error detection and considers the production of novel responses.

The text discusses Schema Theory and its similarity to previous work on generalised motor programmes. Schema Theory suggests that slow movements are feedback-based while rapid movements are program-based, whereas Adams proposed that movements were performed by referencing previous movements. According to Schema Theory, as individuals learn, they acquire rules (schemas) that enable the creation of new responses. Both Schema Theory and Closed Loop Theory are backed by empirical evidence, but neither can fully explain the process of motor learning.