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Head-sparing

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biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth (brain last part affected by malnutrition)

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REM sleep

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Rapid Eye Movement Sleep- characterized by fluttering lids w/rapid brain waves and when most dreaming occurs (1/2 of newborns sleep is REM, but this and transitional half awake sleeping declines over the first 3 months until normal stages are present)

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Average Newborn Sleep Length

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At beginning 15 to 17 hrs per day, then decreases so at 2 months average=14.5 hrs, 5 months=13.25 hrs and 6-17 months=12.75 hrs, but variations are common

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Co-sleeping

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custom of parents and children sleeping in same room, more common in Asia, Africa and Latin America than in Western cultures

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slow-wave sleep

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quiet sleep, increases at 3-4 months

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Average Height Gain

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Normal newborns are 20 inches and then 34 inches @2 years

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Average Weight Gain

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Normal newborn weight is 7.5 lbs. This doubles @4 months, triples @1 year and quadruples@2 years. 2 years olds =28lbs

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Axon

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a fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrochemical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of other neurons.

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dendrite

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a fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrochemical impulses transmitted from other neurons via their axons.

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synapse

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the intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons.

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neurotransmitter

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a brain chemical that carries information from the axon of a sending neuron to the dendrites of a receiving neuron.

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transient exuberance

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The great but temporary increase in the number of dendrites in an infant's brain from birth to age 2. Enable neurons to connect and communicate with other neurons

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Pruning

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where unused neurons and misconnected dendrites die, allowing the brain to think quicker b/c it's not jumbled with so much stuff

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brain production of stress hormones

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If brain produces too many stress hormones during infancy, it might not be able to have normal stress responses. Caused when babies are terrified, crying, or experiencing other forms of stress. This effect can last into adulthood.

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Experience-expectant

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require basic common experiences in order to develop normally (i.e. people who love them, things to see, objects to manipulate no matter where they are)

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experience-dependant

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these happen to some infants but not all, not necessary for brain function (i.e. language baby hears french vs. english, or how their mother reacts to frustration)

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prefrontal cortex

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the area for anticipation, planning, and impulse control. The last part of the brain to mature and virtually inactive during infancy

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shaken baby syndrome

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a life-threatening injury occurring when an infant is forcefully shaken back and forth, rupturing blood vessels and breaking neural connections . Can be shown by brain scans (in U.S. more than 1 in 5 kids hospitalized for maltreatment suffer from it)

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self-righting

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inborn drive to fix a developmental deficit -All people have self-righting impulses for physical and emotional imbalances.

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sensation

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The response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus.

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perception

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The mental processing of sensory information when the brain interprets a sensation. Perception occurs in the cortex

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when does sensory development occur

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the 5 senses typically precede intellectual and motor development. An infant's sense organs must function for the sequence of sensation to perception to cognition to occur

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hearing during infancy

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Hearing develops during the last trimester of pregnancy and is already quite acute at birth; the most advanced of the newborn's senses.

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vision during infancy

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Vision is the least mature sense at birth. Newborns focus only on objects between 4 and 30 inches away. Binocular vision, the ability to coordinate the two eyes to see one image, appears at 3 months.

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smelling, tasting, and touching

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•Function at birth and adapt to social world •Babies recognize each person's smell and handling •Infant senses function to help babies join the human family

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gross motor skills

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Physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping.

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fine motor skills

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Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin.

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crawling as a prelude to walking

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between 8-10 months most infants can lift their midsections and crawl, however it's not true babies must crawl to walk (it's experience-dependant) all babies figure out some way to move before walking

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successful immunizations

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SMALLPOX-most lethal disease for children, eradicated in 1971 so vaccine not needed; POLIO- widespread vaccination began in 1955, mostly gone, but returning to west africa; MEASLES-vaccine made in 1963, prior 3-4 million in US alone; ROTAVIRUS(diarrhea)-recently developed, not widespread yet, also - whooping cough, pneumonia, chicken pox, MMR (measles, mumps, rubella), influenza, DTaP (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus)

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protein-calorie malnutrition

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when not enough food of any kind is consumed

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stunting

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being too short for your age due to severe and chronic malnutrition

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wasting

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being very underweight due to malnutrition (2 or more deviation below average

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marasmus

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severe malnutrition during infancy where child stops growing, tissues waste away and then usually dies

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kwashiorkor

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disease of chronic malnutrition during childhood where child becomes more likely to get other diseases such as measles, diarrhea and influenza (malnutrition after age one can cause)

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sensorimotor intelligence

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Piaget's term for the way infants think—by using their senses and motor skills—during the first period of cognitive development. •Begins at birth and ends at about 24 months

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primary circular reactions

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•The first of three types of feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence •Involves the infant's responses to its body •Stage 1: stage of reflexes (i.e. sucking) •Stage 2: stage of first habits (i.e. grabbing a bottle to suck it)

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secondary circular reactions

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•The second type of feedback loop •Involves responses to people and objects •Stage 3: making interesting events last -i.e. clapping hands when told to •Stage 4: new adaptation and anticipation -i.e. putting mother's hands together in order to make her start playing patty-cake

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object permanence

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the realization that objects (including people) still exist when they can no longer be seen, touched, or hear.

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Tertiary Circular Reactions

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•The third type of feedback loop-Active exploration and experimentation •Stage 5: new means through active experimentation -"Little scientist" active and creative exploration using trial and error •Stage 6: anticipate and solve problems by using mental combinations

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deferred limitation

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when infants copy behavior they noticed hours or days earlier

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habituation

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From Piaget•The process of getting used to an object or event through repeated exposure to it •Evidence of habituation is loss of interest •By using habituation and then introducing a new stimulus, we can find more of what babies know and learn

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Techniques Used to Study the Brain:

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-fMRI: used to locate neurological responses to stimuli -EEG: measures electric activity in cortex -ERP (event related potential): notes amplitude and frequency of electrical activity -PET: like fMRI but requires injection of dye

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Information-processing Theory

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•Modeled on computer functioning •Information-processing theorists believe that a step-by-step description of the mechanisms of thought adds insight to our understanding of cognition at every age. •Contrast with Piaget's stages

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affordances

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The environment affords opportunities for interactions with what is perceived (am opportunity for perceptions and interaction that is offered by a person, place or object in the environment)

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visual cliff

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The visual cliff was an experimental apparatus designed to provide the illusion of a sudden drop-off between one horizontal surface and another. (6 months not afraid, but 10 months old fearful)

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Dynamic Perception:

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focuses on movement and change -Babies work to master the next motor skill

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people preference

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an innate attraction to other humans -Babies recognize regular caregivers and expect certain affordances from them (i.e. comfort, food, etc.)

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reminder session (for infant memory)

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Rovee-Collier found that infants could remember after 2 weeks if they had a reminder session -any experience that helps one remember an event, thing or idea

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infant memory

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Developmentalists now agree that very young infants can remember if the following conditions are met: -Experimental conditions are similar to real life. -Motivation is high. -Special measures aid memory retrieval.

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Implicit Memory:

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remains hidden until a stimulus brings it to mind -stored via habits, emotional responses, etc.

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explicit memory

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can be recalled on demand, usually with words -consciously learned words, data & concepts

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child directed speech

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the high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants (called baby talkor motherese)

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babbling

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the extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old

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first words

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•At about 1 year, babies speak a few words. •Spoken vocabulary increases gradually (about one or two new words a week).

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holophrase

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A single word that is used to express a complete, meaningful thought. -All new talkers say names and utter holophrases.

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naming explosion

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A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.

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grammar

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includes all the devices by which words communicate meaning:sequence, prefixes, suffixes, intonation, loudness, verb forms, pronouns, negations, prepositions, and articles.

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language learning theory #1-children need to be taught

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•B. F. Skinner (1957) noticed that spontaneous babbling is usually reinforced. •Parents are expert teachers. •Frequent repetition of words is instructive, especially when linked to daily life. •Well-taught infants become well-spoken children.

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language learning theory #2-social pragmatic

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•Infants communicate in every way they can because humans are social beings. •Early communication focuses on the emotional messages of speech and not the words

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Theory Three: Infants Teach Themselves

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•Language acquisition device (LAD)-Chomsky's term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation.

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A Hybrid Theory:

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•Some aspects of language may be explained by one theory at one age and another theory at another age •How language is learned depends on the age of the child as well as on the particular circumstances

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•Smiling and Laughing

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-Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces -Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity

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anger

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-First expressions at around 6 months -Healthy response to frustration

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sadness

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-Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol -Stressful experience for infants

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fear

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Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations

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stranger wariness

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Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close

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seperation anxiety

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-Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves. -If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

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toddler's emotions

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Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused •Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating •New emotions appear: pride, shame, embarrassment, guilt •Require an awareness of other people •Emerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture Emotional Development

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self-awareness

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-The realization that one's body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. •First 4 months: Infants have no sense of self; may see themselves as part of their mothers. •5 months: Begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.

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mirror recognition

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Classic experiment (M. Lewis & Brooks, 1978) -Babies aged 9-24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses. -None of those younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them. -15-to 24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.

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Emotional Self-regulation

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-Directly connected to maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus

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hypothalamus

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-Regulates various bodily functions and hormone production -May grow more slowly if an infant is often stressed

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avoiding stress

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•supporting new mothers •involving new fathers in the care of the infant •strengthening the parents' relationship

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Synesthesia

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-When one sense triggers another in the brain -Common in infants because boundaries between sensory parts of the cortex are less distinct.

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cross-modal perception

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-Infant associates textures with vision, sounds with smells, own body with the bodies of others -Basis for early social understanding

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Synesthesia of emotions

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-Infant's cry can be triggered by pain, fear, tiredness, or excitement; laughter can turn to tears. -Emotions are difficult to predict because of the way infants' brains are activated.

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temperment

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•Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation •Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices

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goodness of fit

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A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context (includes family, school, and community). With this -parents of difficult babies build a close relationship -parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm -parents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust

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Freud: Oral and Anal Stages •Oral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant's primary source of gratification •Anal stage (second year): Infant's main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them)

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Potential conflicts: •Oral fixation: If denied the infant urge to suck, may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively) •Anal personality: Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness

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Erikson: Trust and Autonomy •Trust versus mistrust -Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met

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•Autonomy versus shame and doubt -Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and bodies •Early problems can create an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy)

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behavorism&social learning

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Parents mold an infant's emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment •Social learning -The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others -Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura

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Cognitive Theory •Working model: a set of assumptions used to organize perceptions and experiences

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-A person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised by evidence that this working model of human behavior is erroneous. -The child's interpretation of early experiences is more important than the experiences themselves. -New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretationof previous experiences

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ethnotheory

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A theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture. •Example:Culture's ethnotheory includes the belief in reincarnation or Children are not expected to show respect for adults, but adults must show respect for their reborn ancestors indulgent child-rearing

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proximal parenting

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-Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching

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distal parenting

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Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching

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synchrony

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A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant•Synchrony in the first few months: Becomes more frequent and more elaborate -Helps infants learn to read others' emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction -Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants

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attachment

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Attachment is a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another. -Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person's close relationships throughout life -Infants show attachment through proximity-seeking(i.e. approaching caregiver) and contact-maintaining(i.e. touching, holding)

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secure attachment

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An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver.

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insecure avoident attachment

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An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return.

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Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment:

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An infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion.

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Disorganized attachment

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:A type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return.

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social referencing

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-Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. •Mothers use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants.

Vocabulary from chapters 5,6,7,8 – Flashcards

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