United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan Essay Example

the power of Allah.

The disagreement regarding opposition to the Soviets and the degree of Allah's influence on individuals' lives remains unsettled. Afghanistan is recognized as one of the most impoverished and desolate nations worldwide. The Soviet invasion led to a death toll exceeding one million, with additional casualties in subsequent years. The average lifespan hovers around forty-six years, ranking among the lowest internationally. Tuberculosis and malaria are prevalent ailments. Access to medical facilities is scarce outside major urban centers, while education standards are severely lacking. Additionally, Afghanistan confronts critical environmental challenges such as soil deterioration, deforestation, and desertification.

In 2000, Afghanistan faced its most severe drought in a generation. This led to a significant struggle for survival among a large portion of the population. At that time, the Taliban regime held control over more than 90% of the country until they were attacked by the USA. In rural areas, the Taliban had limited presence and coexisted with traditional governance structures like the jirga and local power-holders. However, in urban areas, the Taliban directly controlled through their religious police department called "the Promotion of Virtue and the Suppression of Vice". Neighboring countries and major powers saw Afghanistan as an opportunity to increase their influence in this region. As a result, conflicts between local rulers escalated due to both local animosities and sponsor states' interests in dominating Afghanistan. Moreover, recent estimates indicate that Afghanistan is responsible for about three-quarters of global opium production, valued at around $80 billion.

According to the 1999 report Patterns of Global Terrorism by the US State Department, terrorism has shifted its focus from the Middle East to South Asia, specifically Afghanistan. This change occurred

amidst political and military instability, economic and social decay, security concerns, environmental issues, and a lack of international policy. The key players in this conflict are the Taliban government and the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (UIFSA). With Mullah Mohammed Omar at its helm, the Taliban government was established in September 1996 with support from Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Republic. Initially, many Afghan citizens supported the Taliban due to their exhaustion with widespread lawlessness throughout different regions in their country.The Taliban gained respect for their refusal to negotiate with warlords whose rivalries had caused destruction and death, as well as their efforts to eradicate corruption and restore peace for flourishing commerce. However, they also enforced strict interpretations of Islamic law, implementing punishments like amputations for criminals and imposing bans on women working, girls attending school, the burqa being worn, and games, music, and television being prohibited. Commander Ahmad Shah Masoud led the United Front or Northern Alliance (UIFSA), which supported the ousted Islamic State of Afghanistan (ISA) government until his assassination in September 2001. Comprised of diverse ethnic Mujahidin groups, the United Front is opposed by Pakistan who plays a significant role in Afghan affairs due to security concerns, domestic politics, ideology, and political identity.

Pakistan has been accused of having links with the Taliban, though it denies any involvement. However, evidence suggests that its Inter-Services Intelligence agency (ISI) and extremist group Jamiat-ul-Ulema-e-Islam played a significant role in the creation of the student militia. Pakistan is believed to have provided support to the Taliban through recruitment, military training, and strategic military planning. Former Pakistani military officers also offered specialized assistance

in artillery use and maintenance.

Another party involved in this issue is the "Six-plus-Two" contact group, comprising China, Iran, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, USA, and Uzbekistan. Despite publicly denying support for Afghan combatants or allowing their territories to be used for such purposes, these states have supplied military aid to the United Front. The primary culprits behind this support are Iran and Russia while Tajikistan, Uzbekistan (until 1998), Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan play smaller roles.

During the Cold War era when destabilizing the Soviet Union was an objective for several countries including the United States as they backed Mujahidin fighters against the Soviet Union-backed regime in Kabul.

In 1996, the Taliban government came to power with the tacit approval of the US. However, tensions between Washington and Kabul arose due to terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaida in Africa in 1998. Consequently, on October 7, 2001, the US and UK launched attacks which led to the downfall of the Taliban regime. Subsequently, a transitional government was formed by members of an anti-Taliban coalition.

The main conflicts among these belligerents revolve around power struggles and ethnic/religious rivalries. Initially, the Taliban emerged as a force for reform against Afghanistan warlords and "corrupt and power-hungry" Mujahidin groups. Nevertheless, they eventually transformed into self-proclaimed religious vigilantes aiming to address injustices faced by ordinary people.

The movement striving for an authentic Islamic administration denies being a political party or having intentions to establish a government. However, the anti-Taliban alliance, made up primarily of Uzbek, Tajik, and Hazara Mujahidin groups, argues that the Taliban is excluding them from decision-making processes due to their ethnic background. The Taliban strictly interprets Islam and opposes Sufism and Shia practices, which

differ from the moderate Islam followed by most Afghans. This has caused conflict between the Taliban government and the international community, particularly the USA. Allegedly, Afghanistan funds its regime through profits from opium trade by taxing domestic growers and traffickers. As a result, Afghanistan became the world's second-largest opium producer after Burma in 1999 with a production of 4,600 tons. Additionally, harboring Osama bin Laden—a Saudi-born terrorist accused of orchestrating two US bombings—has further infuriated the international community.

The attacks on embassies in Africa occurred in August 1998, followed by the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks in September 2001. The main reason for Washington's actions in Afghanistan is thought to be the exploitation of oil and gas reserves in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan.

124. Symptoms
a) Attitudes: Initially, the Taliban received praise for bringing peace and security to their controlled areas, which gained support from locals and provincial leaders23. This differed from their perception of the Mujahidin government.
b) Behavior: The conflict was characterized by the failure of the Mujahidin government to reach a lasting political settlement and the Taliban's refusal to negotiate. There were violent clashes between both sides resulting in numerous casualties before Kabul fell in August and September.

Despite the UN Mission to Afghanistan's attempts, both sides ignored their efforts to mediate peace talks and request a cease-fire. In May 1991, the UN proposed an "international consensus" for a peace agreement in Afghanistan, but it was swiftly rejected. Another effort to establish an interim government in January 1995 also met failure. Then, in September 1996, the Taliban took control of Kabul, Afghanistan's capital city, after achieving several significant military victories earlier that month. This

event marked an escalation of the conflict between the Taliban and Mujahidin groups.

The student religious militia ousted President Burhanuddin Rabbani's government and swiftly established a new government with a strict Islamic regime. However, this government was only recognized by Pakistan. In October, opposition forces attacked the Taliban, but attempts at mediation by Pakistan were unsuccessful and a reported truce collapsed. The violent tensions persisted, and in late December, the Taliban made a major military advance despite a failed UN attempt in November to negotiate a cease-fire. The opposition forces initially consisted of two main Mujahidin groups: Jamiat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan, led by Ahmad Shah Massoud, and Junbish-i Milli-yi Islami-yi Afghanistan, commanded by Rashid Dostam. In May 1997, after intensified fighting, Dostam was compelled to flee to Turkey. His escape resulted in the restructuring and consolidation of anti-Taliban forces in June.

Under the overall command of Masud, the new alliance formed was called the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan (UIFSA). It consisted of two new groups: forces loyal to Gulbuddin Nekmatyar, the former Prime Minister and leader of the Hezb-i-Islami faction, as well as followers of Pir Sayed Ahmed Gailani from the Mahaz-i-Melli-i-Islami. Additionally, Shiite and Ismaili Muslim militias that had fought against the Taliban in previous alliances joined the coalition. In October, General Dostam returned to Afghanistan and was appointed as the military commander of UIFSA26. In December, a series of three meetings organized by the UN in New York City brought together countries belonging to the "Six-Plus-Two" group. These meetings aimed to stop the flow of weapons to the conflicting factions in Afghanistan, which was an external factor intended to create a military

deadlock and facilitate a peaceful resolution.

On February 4, 1998, an earthquake in the province of Takhtar temporarily halted the conflict, as severe weather conditions impeded military operations for both sides. Despite a three-day cease-fire declared by the Taliban militia and the Alliance, violent tensions persisted on February 7-8. Peace talks between Taliban officials and the anti-Taliban coalition began on March 11, 1999 in Turkmenistan, indicating some signs of de-escalation in the conflict.

At first, there was a consensus between both parties to form a complete government comprising the executive, legislature, and judiciary. However, conflicts arose in different provinces in April and escalated in August and September. As a result, the peace negotiations were unsuccessful. Later on, in December 2000, indirect discussions occurred between the Taliban and UIFSA in Turkmenistan with the aim of reconciliation. Unfortunately, no significant advancements were achieved as fighting persisted throughout February.

In the summer of 2001, the conflict in Afghanistan escalated, resulting in increased confrontations between warring factions. By the end of August, both sides reported minimal progress on the military front. On September 15, it was announced that Ahmad Shah Masoud died from injuries sustained in a bomb attack. In a late August interview, Masoud admitted that his forces would never be able to defeat the Taliban militarily. His death potentially weakened the coalition against the Taliban as he was a unifying figure for various Mujahidin groups. However, since September, there has been a significant shift in power dynamics within Afghanistan.

Following accusations by US officials, Osama bin Laden, an Islamic Militant hailing from Saudi Arabia and operating in Afghanistan, was deemed responsible for orchestrating the September terrorist attacks on the USA. In

response, U.S. and UK forces initiated action on October 7, ultimately resulting in the anti-Taliban coalition capturing Kabul in November. Consequently, this led to the dismantlement of the Taliban regime and marked the conclusion of the conflict.

Power Relations

The belligerent forces had an imbalanced power dynamic in terms of soldiers. The Taliban had between 25,000 to 30,000 fighters, while the UIFSA forces only had 15,000 troops. Pakistani volunteers joining the Taliban were primarily trained at Rishikor, a former Afghan Army base southwest of Kabul. The anti-Taliban alliance lacked manpower, training, and equipment to effectively combat the Taliban. The Taliban had over 200 tanks and several aircraft seized from Mujahidin groups. Retired military officers often managed Pakistani private companies that played a significant role in procuring ammunition for the Taliban.

The United Front (UIFSA) coalition has received assistance from neighboring countries. Specifically, Iran has supplied various weapons to UIFSA, including tank ammunition, antitank mines, towed howitzers, and rockets. Russia has also provided rocket projectiles, cargo aircrafts, multiple-rocket launch systems, large-caliber rockets, logistical support, and maintenance services for aircraft and helicopters. However, despite this military aid, the UIFSA forces were not as strong as the Taliban's. Ahmed Shah Masoud, a leader of UIFSA, visited Europe in April 2000 to appeal for more international involvement in the conflict, whether through military or humanitarian assistance. In terms of economics, both the Taliban government and the Northern Alliance faced sanctions imposed by the USA and the UN during different time periods. However, the Taliban had a more stable source of revenue from opium production and taxation on agricultural production and transportation. In contrast, the anti-Taliban alliance had to rely solely on

its external sponsors for support.

Although the Taliban regime lacked recognition from the international community, the UIFSA received significant sympathy externally. However, the NMA was psychologically weaker due to a lack of internal organization and frequent clashes between factions. The death of General Masoud could have potentially led to the collapse of the alliance. The morale of the alliance was only boosted by the bombing of the World Trade Center and Pentagon, as well as US military action against Osama Bin Laden and his Taliban supporters. Some analysts argue that there was no valid, organized, and effective opposition to challenge Taliban power. The relationship between secondary parties involved in the conflict and their individual interests completely altered this status quo. Despite involvement from neighboring countries, it was ultimately the intervention of the USA in Afghanistan that ended Taliban rule.

Both sides involved in the conflict engaged in numerous negotiations and agreed on peace proposals. However, these proposals were not adhered to or implemented. As an example, in November 1997, UIFSA unilaterally released over 200 Taliban prisoners and initiated cease-fire negotiations with the Taliban government. Unfortunately, the situation deteriorated and the initiative failed due to intense fighting. The UN acted as a mediator, organizing peace talks in November 1996 and calling for a cease-fire in January 1998. On March 11, 1999, peace talks commenced between Taliban officials and the anti-Taliban coalition in Turkmenistan. Tragically, the peace negotiations collapsed in April as violent clashes erupted in several provinces. The arms limitation agreements made by secondary parties aided in facilitating conflict resolution.

In December 1997, the "Six-Plus-Two" group convened and reached an agreement to halt the arms flow to the

opposing factions in Afghanistan.40 Then, in July 1999, the group endorsed a declaration that forbade the provision of military assistance to any Afghan party and prohibited the usage of their territories by Afghani militants.41 Nonetheless, these measures proved insufficient as the parties involved failed to uphold the agreements. The primary catalyst for ending the conflict came with the US's launch of the "war on terrorism" in Afghanistan, ultimately leading to the overthrow of the Taliban regime. Nevertheless, the resolution of the struggle did not signify the elimination of underlying incompatibilities.

For many years, Pakistan, Iran, Russia, and Saudi Arabia have competed in Afghanistan, interfering in its internal affairs and pursuing their own interests. This has led to increased conflicts between ethnic groups and terrorism within the country. In order to break this cycle of violence, the major religious and ethnic groups of Afghanistan need to work together to select their own leaders rather than having leaders imposed upon them. They can achieve this by establishing a loya jirga, a council of tribal leaders who will appoint a transitional government that is representative of multiple ethnic groups. This process began in December 2001 when Afghanistan's four factions agreed on a 30-member interim cabinet.

According to the agreement, an interim power-sharing cabinet is headed by Hamid Karzai, a Pashtun tribal leader. The cabinet consists of 11 Pashtuns, eight Tajiks, five Hazaras, three Uzbeks, and representatives from other minority groups. This administrative cabinet includes two female members. They will govern for six months until the loya jirga is convened by the former king.

The council will approve a temporary government, leading to elections within the next two years. This initial move

towards a secure and inclusive government "will enable the Afghan citizens to regain control of their nation."