Study Notes All Essay Example

to address the existing health disparities they face. To ensure fairness and equity for all individuals in our society, the principles of social justice embodied by RAPE and DES are taken into consideration.

Equal opportunity and social justice both address the fair treatment of individuals and groups. Equal opportunity encompasses the entire community, while social justice specifically targets marginalized and disadvantaged groups. Public policies should ensure that healthcare services are accessible to all individuals. This includes providing clean water and sanitation in remote communities, as well as offering high-quality healthcare to those from low socioeconomic backgrounds. To effectively educate the community, information should be presented in languages that are easily comprehensible for everyone.

The goal of social justice in Australia is to lessen health disparities. The principles of social justice encompass fairness, accessibility, participation, and entitlements. Social justice entails waking up in a home with sufficient water supply, cooking facilities, and sanitation. It involves being able to provide nourishment for your children and sending them to a school that not only prepares them for work but also deepens their appreciation of culture.

Mick Dodson stressed the significance of attaining genuine employment and good health without discrimination in his 1993 Annual Report as the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner. The notion of health equity does not seek to entirely eliminate all disparities in healthcare, but rather concentrates on lessening or eradicating disparities caused by preventable and unfair factors.

The primary objective of equity is to foster fairness in health opportunities and lessen disparities in health, particularly by tackling pressing health issues like preventable chronic diseases, injuries, and mental health problems that

impact Australians. Specific groups within the population are at a greater risk of developing these conditions in these specific domains.

In order to decrease the prevalence of diseases, government health care expenditure and health promotion initiatives can be targeted towards at-risk population groups. Analyzing statistics helps us understand the frequency of a condition in the community, and morbidity statistics are reliable indicators for this purpose. They can uncover variations within the same condition, such as a low mortality rate but a high morbidity rate. Governments can then investigate reasons behind these differences, such as advancements in technology for detection and treatment, and allocate resources accordingly. Hospital admissions and health surveys are two methods utilized to collect statistics that provide an overview of a population's health status. Various behaviors have an impact on the occurrence and prevalence of diseases and conditions.

Lifestyle behaviors such as smoking, lack of physical activity, and a diet high in fat and salt are often linked to numerous factors. These behaviors can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, by adopting a healthy diet, exercising regularly, limiting alcohol intake, and quitting smoking, many conditions related to lifestyle can be prevented. For instance, easily avoidable risk factors like smoking and lack of physical activity contribute to cardiovascular disease. By quitting smoking and engaging in regular exercise, individuals can reduce their chances of developing this condition. Risk factors are responsible for over 30% of Australia's overall burden of death, disease, and disability (Australia's Health 2010). Nevertheless, achieving behavior change is challenging for many Australians due to various social and environmental influences on behavior. This includes limited access to mammograms for people

living in isolated areas. Therefore, when allocating resources for health issues, it is important to consider these complex factors.

In order to reduce the impact of negative health on both individuals and society, it is important to modify behavior, social interactions, and the environment. The timely recognition and treatment of illnesses and conditions are vital for successful therapy. Examples like breast and skin cancer demonstrate how early identification and intervention lead to lower mortality rates. Sickness creates economic and societal difficulties that affect various aspects of a person's life.

Living with a chronic health condition can have negative impacts on various areas, such as lifespan, quality of life, and financial burden for families. Serious illnesses often lead to extended hospital stays, which can cause unemployment and financial stress for their families. It is crucial to acknowledge that the expenses related to poor health extend beyond direct monetary costs; they also encompass indirect financial, physical, social, emotional, and mental burdens.

Understanding the impact of a health condition, whether it is acute or chronic, on an individual's or family's social and emotional well-being is extremely challenging. According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), there has been a significant increase in per-person expenditure on health between 1995-96 and 2007-08. In 1995-96, the average amount spent per person was $2146, but by 2007-08 it had risen to $4874. Additionally, Australia's total estimated expenditure on health exceeded $103.6 billion in 2007-08, marking the first time it had surpassed $1 billion.

Source: Australia’s health 2010, AIHW

The main reason for this phenomenon is the increasing life expectancy in Australia. Since the early 1900s,

life expectancy has risen by 20 years and continues to rise. As a result, there will be a need for additional funding to meet the healthcare needs of the expanding elderly population who are living longer lives. Additionally, as survival rates for chronic illnesses like cancer improve, Australians will inevitably have to bear a greater financial burden in terms of healthcare expenses due to the growing responsibility of caring for this aging group.

The utilization of Medicare in Australia highlights the significance of the country's healthcare system and spending. Although advancements in technology result in more effective treatment approaches, they also have a hefty price tag. Nevertheless, these innovations are essential for delivering optimal care to individuals. The examination of present health patterns is facilitated by categorizing the population into distinct groups, enabling the identification of any disparities in illnesses and conditions among them.

Certain populations, particularly those experiencing health disparities, have shorter lifespans and higher rates of preventable diseases and injuries. Furthermore, they encounter challenges in accessing essential healthcare services and lack necessary resources. Their ability to make healthy lifestyle choices is also limited, resulting in a reduced capacity to maintain good health. Collectively, these factors contribute to their ongoing efforts towards enhanced well-being.

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are the main groups facing inequalities, particularly in terms of health status. The mortality rates graph from Australia's Health 2010 report highlights the disparity between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. It reveals that the burden of poor health on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is significantly higher compared to other Australians.

Indigenous Australians experience shorter lifespans, higher rates of

disability, and a lower quality of life due to poor health. Although there has been some improvement, recent data shows that the gap in mortality rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians is increasing. From 2003 to 2007, Indigenous children aged 0-4 had roughly double the mortality rate compared to non-Indigenous children. This inequality is particularly significant among individuals facing socioeconomic disadvantages.

Research shows that individuals or groups who are socially and economically disadvantaged experience various health difficulties. These include a shorter life expectancy, early death, higher rates of disease, increased risk factors for poor health (both biological and behavioral), and an overall lower level of well-being. The link between socio-economic status (SES) and health begins at birth and continues throughout life, although the strength of this connection varies at different stages of life. Because economic and social inequalities are interconnected, their combined impact can result in limited opportunities and prospects for those affected by them.

The social hierarchy has a significant impact on individuals' access to resources, opportunities, and power. People with higher socioeconomic status have greater access to these benefits, while those with lower status face limited access. As a result, there is a social gradient where overall health and wellbeing tend to improve as one moves up the socioeconomic ladder. Higher-income individuals generally experience better health and longer lives compared to those with lower incomes. Notably, there is also a noticeable health disparity between the rich, middle class, and poor.

Several factors contribute to how socioeconomic status influences health:
- Access to healthcare: The availability of healthcare services greatly affects an individual's well-being.
- Individual behaviors: Lifestyle choices such as smoking, exercise habits, nutrition intake,

stress levels, and experiences of depression significantly influence health outcomes.
- Environmental factors: Conditions like pollution levels and housing quality or conditions (including overcrowding) play a role in overall health.
- Social environments: The neighborhood we live in or work environments can impact our well-being.

Additionally, our mental and physical health are affected by interpersonal support or conflict as well as experiences of violence and discrimination.According to research from the 2007-08 National Health Survey, individuals with lower socioeconomic status are more prone to engaging in unhealthy behaviors such as smoking and lack of physical activity, which can lead to overweight or obesity. These choices increase their risk for long-term health conditions like respiratory diseases, lung cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (as seen in table 5 from Australia's Health 2010). Further analysis of the survey reveals that individuals facing disadvantage commonly report long-term health conditions such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression, and respiratory diseases like asthma. Additionally, those who experience socio-economic disadvantages tend to have more frequent appointments with doctors, hospital outpatient services, and accident and emergency facilities; however they are less likely to utilize preventive healthcare offerings like dental services. This pattern is also observed among individuals residing in rural and remote regions.

In Australia, rural and remote areas accommodate diverse lifestyles. However, people in these regions typically experience poorer health outcomes compared to those living in major cities. Although there are advantages to residing in these areas such as fresher air, less congestion, and a more laid-back way of life, individuals in rural and remote locations encounter higher mortality rates, prevalence of diseases, and health risk factors. Research indicates that medical services are not as readily available

in these regions as they are in urban areas, resulting in heightened vulnerability to various health risks for residents.

According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2008), rural Australians have higher social cohesiveness, engaging more in volunteer work and feeling a stronger sense of community security. The definition of 'rural and remote' is not clear-cut as it encompasses all areas outside major cities (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2008).

Involving Indigenous Australians can effectively address the health problems of people in rural and remote areas. Despite comprising only 2.5% of Australia's total population, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples account for 24% of those residing in remote or very remote areas. Unlike immigrants currently living in Australia, the health issues faced by the Indigenous community have a notable impact on the health statistics of specific rural and remote regions.

Australia has a significant immigrant population, accounting for approximately 25% (5.5 million individuals) of the total population. The majority of these immigrants come from non-English speaking countries. This diverse immigrant population in Australia possesses distinct health traits, and studies indicate that their overall health is typically comparable to or even superior to that of native-born Australians.

According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (Singh & de Looper, 2002), the healthy migrant effect refers to the lower rates of death, hospitalization, disability, and lifestyle-related risk factors experienced by immigrant populations. This phenomenon can be attributed to two main factors. Firstly, individuals who choose to migrate are typically in good health and have the financial means to do so. Conversely, those who are ill or disabled may not have the ability

to undertake such a journey. Secondly, the government selection process for immigrants also plays a role as it establishes specific criteria based on health, education, language proficiency, and job skills.

The health patterns of migrants in Australia start to resemble those of the general population as they stay for longer periods, according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare's 2010 report on Australia's health. This indicates a decline in the healthy migrant effect.

Although there are advantages, specific country-of-birth groups in Australia face a higher prevalence of health risk factors and diseases. These disparities can be attributed to socioeconomic, cultural, and genetic influences. Psychological distress is a significant influence that often arises from war, conflict, relocation, and separation from loved ones.
Migrant groups may also encounter language barriers that hinder their ability to report medical conditions. In addition, they may face difficulties in accessing healthcare services. Furthermore, these groups have lower rates of immunization for their children and engage in less physical activity. Elderly individuals from non-English speaking backgrounds are particularly affected by these factors.

The elderly population in Australia has grown significantly in recent decades, leading to an increased focus on improving their health and quality of life. This is crucial for reducing the demand for healthcare services as the population ages. To address this issue, Australia has prioritized national research on the health of older individuals. Evidence indicates that older Australians today are living longer and healthier lives compared to previous generations. Currently, individuals aged 65 years or older make up 13% of the population, with approximately 1% being aged 85 years and older. In contrast, in 1956, only 8.4%

of the population was aged 65 years and older, with just 0.4% being aged 85 years and older (Australia’s health 2010, p320). These trends are expected to continue in the future; however, it is important to note that as people age, they may experience more disability which can affect their mobility and require increased access to healthcare.

In 2007, coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, especially stroke, were the leading causes of death among older males (26%) and females (29%) in Australia. These diseases also significantly contribute to disability in older Australians. The third most common cause of death for older males was lung cancer, while it ranked fourth for older females. Colorectal cancer affected both genders greatly, while prostate cancer and breast cancer were notable causes of death specific to each sex. For more information, please refer to Australia's health 2010 publication.

It is important to note that although diseases and injuries can temporarily impair functioning, many individuals eventually make a full recovery.

Some individuals experience long-lasting impact from residual damage or the development of a chronic health condition. On the other hand, certain people have had permanent damage or functional loss since birth. In these cases, special assistance may be required in their daily lives. There are many Australians who live with persistent health conditions. While most of these conditions do not directly cause death, they often result in disability and a lower quality of life. Around one in five Australians encounter some degree of disability.

The ABS Short Disability Module categorizes disabilities into the following groups:
1. Severe or profound core activity limitation - individuals who occasionally or always need

help with self-care, communication, or mobility.
2. Moderate or mild core activity limitation or schooling or employment restriction - individuals who struggle with performing an essential activity (moderate), rely on aids due to disability (mild), or have limitations in schooling/employment participation only.
3. No specific core activity limitation or schooling or employment restriction - individuals identified as having a disability without any specific limitations/restrictions.

Physical conditions like arthritis, respiratory diseases, circulatory diseases, and musculoskeletal disorders make up the majority of disabilities. There are also prevalent sensory disorders such as ear and eye diseases, along with mental disorders. The severity of disability is associated with higher rates of disease and comorbidity. People with disabilities often face inequities due to socioeconomic circumstances that restrict job opportunities and require ongoing healthcare. Furthermore, they encounter difficulties in accessing healthcare services, have shorter life expectancies, and experience poorer health in different areas.

The experiences and management of disabilities are greatly influenced by the opportunities and services provided to individuals. Wheelchair users, for instance, rely on different forms of aid such as wheelchairs or other technical assistance. However, their access to healthcare services, employment prospects, support systems, and policies that encourage employment can be impeded by the availability of wheelchair-friendly buildings and public transportation. In Australia, improving the healthcare system entails tackling prevalent preventable illnesses, chronic diseases, injuries, and mental health issues that have been identified as priority concerns due to their impact on Australians' well-being.

The Australia's Health 2008 report identified various key priority areas that need improvement for the country's overall health. These areas consist of cardiovascular disease, cancer (specifically skin, breast, and lung cancer), diabetes, respiratory disease, injury prevention,

and mental health issues. Together, these conditions are accountable for nearly 80% of the total burden of disease in Australia. Cancer is the leading cause among these diseases and makes up 19% of the overall burden. Cardiovascular disease closely follows at 18%, while mental disorders contribute to 13%. The death rates have been decreasing for major health concerns such as cancer, heart disease, strokes, injuries, and asthma.

Diseases and injuries have significant societal costs, including healthcare usage, reduced quality of life, and missed work days. However, progress has been made in addressing these issues. Concern arises from the increasing prevalence of certain diseases such as diabetes and mental health problems. It is possible to identify risk factors and determinants of these conditions and change behaviors to lessen their impact. Government agencies and health authorities prioritizing the reduction of these diseases can enhance overall health status.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD), a major health issue in Australia, affects the heart and blood vessels. CVD is primarily caused by atherosclerosis. Despite being the leading cause of death, there is a downward trend in mortality and morbidity related to CVD. Modifying lifestyle factors like tobacco smoking, high blood cholesterol, physical inactivity, and poor nutrition can greatly prevent CVD.

The most vulnerable individuals at risk for developing cardiovascular disease (CVD) include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders peoples, socio-economically disadvantaged individuals, the elderly population, and Australian-born individuals.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD), also known as circulatory disease or heart, stroke, and vascular diseases, encompasses various health conditions that affect the heart and blood vessels. These include coronary heart disease (CHD), cerebrovascular disease (stroke), and peripheral vascular disease. The main cause of CVD is plaque formation

caused by atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis is a chronic process characterized by the accumulation of fat, cholesterol, and other substances in the inner lining of arteries. This condition becomes evident when it hinders or obstructs blood flow to the heart (causing angina or heart attack) or the brain (resulting in stroke). Cardiovascular disease remains a prominent health concern in Australia and requires attention according to AIHW's Health Priority Areas. It continues to be a major health problem in the country, significantly affecting Australians as it is responsible for both mortality and morbidity.

According to the 2007-08 National Health Survey data, there has been a decrease in the prevalence and incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The burden of CVD significantly rises with age (National Health Survey: Summary of results 2007-2008, 2009, ABS). However, despite mortality rates declining in the past three decades, CVD remained as one of Australia's top causes of death in 2005. It accounted for 35% of all deaths (Year Book Australia 2008, 2008, p.347).
In order to effectively prevent CVD, it is crucial to identify risk factors that increase the chances of developing the disease. These risk factors can be either modifiable or non-modifiable.

Various complex factors, including sociocultural, socioeconomic, and environmental determinants, have an impact on health outcomes. These factors can interact differently to influence individual health. Sociocultural aspects, socioeconomic factors, and living conditions are among the determining factors that determine a person's vulnerability to diseases. Specific population groups are more susceptible to certain types of cancer such as skin cancer, breast cancer, and lung cancer. In Australia, breast cancer, melanoma of the skin,lung cancer,and colorectal cancer are the most prevalent cancers

in females while prostate cancer,colorectal cancer,melanoma of the skin,and lungcancer are common in males. Cancer is currently ranked as the second leading cause of morbidity and mortality.Although there has been little change in overall incidence rate for cancer,the trend in mortality is declining.Risk factors specific to each type ofcancer include family history, smoking habits,and exposure to UV rays.These riskfactors play a significant role in the developmentofcancer.In addition,socioeconomic statusand environmental elements serve as major determinantsfor most typesofcancers.

The risk groups for different types of cancers vary. Cancer is a disease that affects the body's cells. Normally, cells grow and reproduce in an organized way. However, there are times when abnormal cells grow and become faulty. These abnormal cells can then multiply, sometimes rapidly, and spread uncontrollably throughout the body (metastasis). Cancer includes around 100 different diseases, such as malignant tumors, leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (Year Book Australia, 2009-2010 . 2010. ABS Tumors are swellings or enlargements caused by clumps of abnormal cells.

Both benign and malignant tumours can occur. Benign tumours can be treated surgically as they remain localized, while malignant tumours have the potential to spread and impact surrounding normal cells. Cancer cells from malignant tumours can enter the bloodstream and lymphatic system, leading to the development of new cancers in other parts of the body. Research on this priority issue specifically targets skin, breast, and lung cancer. For more information about these types of cancer, please visit the mentioned websites. The severity and scope of this problem are also taken into consideration.

According to the AIHW and the Australasian Association of Cancer Registries, in 2005 prostate cancer was the

most prevalent cancer, followed by colon and rectal cancer. Breast cancer, melanoma of the skin, and lung cancer were also common. The occurrence of cancer was more frequent in males than females, especially among individuals over 65 years old. According to Year Book Australia 2009-2010, overall cancer rates are higher in males than females with a male-to-female ratio of 1.4, indicating that the rate for males is 1.4 times higher than for females. In 2005, breast cancer accounted for over 27% of all diagnoses among females as the most common type of cancer, followed by melanoma of the skin and lung cancer.

According to the 2010 Cancer - Australian cancer statistics update, melanoma of the skin was ranked as the third most common male cancer in 2005, closely followed by lung cancer. The report also disclosed that one in three Australian males and one in four females will have received a cancer diagnosis by age 75. By age 85, these rates increase to one in two for males and one in three for females (Australia's health 2010). Cancer accounted for approximately 29% of all deaths in 2007, making it a significant cause of mortality. However, advancements in early detection and treatment methods have improved survival rates and overall decreased mortality for most types of cancers. The incidence rate remains relatively stable.

The incidence and mortality rates for cancer are highest among individuals aged 65 and above, mainly due to the increasing and aging population. In 2007, lung cancer caused the most cancer-related deaths in both men and women. Colorectal cancer was the second leading cause of fatalities, while gender-specific cancers like prostate cancer

in males and breast cancer in females also played a significant role. Risk factors for cancer can be classified as modifiable or non-modifiable, which vary depending on the type of cancer. Certain factors, such as a diet rich in fruits, provide protective effects against common types of cancer like breast cancer.