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Sport is a ____________ of society.

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Microcosm Sports are organized similar to our society and vice versa

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Why do we study sport

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- Sport is an integral part of everyday life - It builds connections with strangers and communities - It provides identities for cities and schools - It provides role models in our society - It affects our culture, traditions and values

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Varda Burstyn

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The feeling and identification engendered by sport "approximate the experience of religion more than any other form of human cultural practice"

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Sport through the ages

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- Greeks: used sport for celebrating, hunting and honoring the gods - Spartans: used to sport to improve war skills - Athenians: along with academics and music, to develop a person holistically

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Pyramid of sport

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work sport games play

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Characteristics of Play

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- Free activity to explore environment, express oneself, dream, and pretend - No firm rules - No set location - Outcome unimportant - Pleasure only objective

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Characteristics of Games

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- Specialized form of play with more structure - Mental or physical (inactive or active) - Informal or formal rules - Competitive - Outcome is prestige or status

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Characteristics of Sport

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- Higher order of play or games - Must include physical activity and skill - Competitive: outcome important to participants (and others) and not predetermined - Institutionalized - requires specialized facilities, equipment

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Definition of Sport In North America

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- An institutionalized competitive activity that involves physical skill and specialized facilities or equipment and is conducted according to an accepted set of rules to determine a winner NOTE: the definition of sport is always changing according to a given culture's beliefs and attitudes toward sport

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Work

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- Physical or mental effort needed to perform a task - Often connected to earning a living - Professional athletes work when they are paid to play a sport - High-performance athletes may experience sport as work even if they aren't yet paid

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Play Group vs. Organized Teams Spontaneous play group

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- Good deal of time spent organizing - Usually no adult supervision - Goal is to continue play - More play for the fun of it - Experience is an end in itself

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Play Group vs. Organized Teams Organized teams

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- Organization is complete before gathering - Supervised and controlled by adults - Goal is victory or improvement in standings - Fun may not a part - Game is the means to an end

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Types of Sport and Work Amateur vs Professionals

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- Amateurs: play for the love of the game and for hobby, and they play just for participation or for engaging in the challenge - Professionals: play for compensation (salary or possibly scholarship) and they use sport to make a living or as a stepping stone

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Types of Sport and Work Recreational vs. High- performance sports

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- Recreational: play is for fitness, fun and socializing - High-performance: is aimed at developing skill to the highest level

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Why we study sport

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- Personal development - Scholarly study - Professional practice NOTE: global physical health concerns have enlarged the focus of sport studies to include exercise, physical activity and public health

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Sport and Exercise Sciences

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- Various names, terms and university departments for study of sport and exercise - Adopted standard of kinesology emerging - Three domains > Biophysical > Psychosocial > Sociocultural

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Biophysical Domain

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- Focuses on physical activity from the sciences of biomechanics, physiology, and medicine - Areas of study > Biomechanics > Exercise physiology > Nutrition > Sports Medicine

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Psychosocial Domain

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- Focuses on physical activity from the science of psychology - Areas of study: > Sport psychology > Motor learning and behavior > Pedagogy

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Sociocultural Domain

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- Focuses on physical activity from the sciences of history, philosophy, and sociology - Areas of Study > Sport history > Sport philosophy > sport sociology

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Definition of Sport Sociology

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- Sociology: study of a society, its institutions, and its relationships - Sport Sociology: study of sport and physical activity in the context of the social conditions and culture in which people live

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Summary of Chapter 1

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- Sport is found in many aspects of everyday life - Sport is a specialized and higher order of games - Professional sports focus on high performance and are work for professional athletes - The line between amateur and professional sports is not clear - The study of sport as a science is growing - There are multiple reasons for studying sport - Sport sociology is the study of sport within social context

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Two main types of research methods

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- Quantifiable: research collects or studies data that can be counted and analyzed statisically - Qualitative: research collects info through interviews or observation of individuals, groups, society characteristics,and trends

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Research Tool Survey

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- How is it conducted: Uses questionnaires - Pros: quick way to get large amounts of data for analysis of trends, with random samplings, permits generalization to larger population - Cons: relies on self-raport, may not account for personal differences, may be misleading if data aren't discreet enough

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Research Tool Interview

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- How it is conducted: Question individuals or small (focus) groups - Pros: can be more in-depth, can prompt unexpected answers - Cons: can be time-consuming, expensive, and limited to small samples

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Research Tool Content Research

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- How is it conducted: Collects info or pictures from media sources and assigns themes - Pros: large amount of data can be assessed, societal priorities and biases can be analyzed - Cons: Implications of the data collected are inferences from others' reporting rather than self-report

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Research Tool Ethnography

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- How is it conducted: Uses recorded notes and conversations obtained by personal observation and immersion within environment or group - Pros: provides insider view - Cons: can be time intensive and costly

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Research Tool Historical Research

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- How is it conducted: examination of primary documents, interviews of primary documents, interviews of primary sources and experts, and analysesof other historians' interpretations - Pros: looks at trends in sport over time, can make comparisons to society at large - Cons: limited to large societal trends

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Research Tool: Societal Analysis

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- How is it conducted: analyzes data obtained through a variety of methods already described - Pros: applies social theories and models to examine life from a social point of view - Cons: If only one theory or model is used salient facts can be ignored and analysis can be skewed

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Social theories

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- THeories compare trends in sport with an overall social theory to reach conclusions about how sport reflects larger culture or acts as a change agent - They help organize how we look at a particular issue or topic - They are used to describe, analyze, formulate beliefs, and make predictions

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Functionalist Theory

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- Sport helps maintain the status quo and equilibrium in society by building character and teaching values - Sport reinforces society's value system - Ex. playing in little league teaches teamwork and fair play - Weaknesses: overemphasizes the positive consequences of sport and downplays the disenfranchised

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Conflict Theory

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- Economic interests shape the world. Sport reinforces the status quo power structure - Focuses on forces that produce instability, disruption, and disorganization - Ex: College football BCS system will stay intact because of money interests even though popular opinion thinks it is flawed - Weakness: Relies heavily on economics

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Critical Theory

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- Heroes used to study the source of power or authority that groups have over on another - Sport does not simply mirror society but can create change in beliefs and relationships - Ex: authoritarian coaches who degrade players can usually survive if the team continues to win - Weakness: critical theory can be confusing and may be helpful only in specific cases

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Feminist Theory

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- Society is patriarchal and ignores or undervalues female virtues - Objectively analyzes the current status of women in sport - Ex: media coverage of only male sports can teach society to undervalue female sports - Weakness: can overlook factors other than gender

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Interactionist theory

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- Focuses on social interactions and relationships (bottom up approach) - Assumes choices are deliberate, conscious, and based on the effect on self and others - Ex: consider needs of the youth athlete to define youth sport structure - Weakness: based on the individual and excludes role of the overall power structure

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Figurational Theory

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- Emphasizes connections and interdependence of people - Views historical changes of networks over a period of time - Ex: analyze how differently aged athletes view sport involvement - Weakness: does not focus on the present, and it emphasizes male power

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Sport Sociology Association

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- International Committee for Sport Sociology (1964) now International Sociology of Sport Association - North American Society for the Sociology of Sport (1978) - Sport Sociology Academy of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE)

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Sport Sociology Journals

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- International Review for the Sociology of Sport (1966) - Journal of Sport and Social Issues (1977) - Sociology of Sport Journal (1984)

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Participating and Spectating

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- Sport participation and sport spectating are often mistakenly combined statistically and annecdotally - They're not the same thing. there is a large difference between participating and viewing Note: participants are more likely to be spectators, but spectators are not necessarily more likely to be participants

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Who Participates?

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- About 65% of Americans participate in recreational activities, but elite sport drives media coverage - High- performance vs. Particiaption athletes - Masters level increasingly more competitive

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Factors affecting sport participation

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- Pursuit of excellence - Recreation ( tug of war between elite and recreational athletes) - Commerical sponsors - Ability to modify game - Support from national governing bodies and associations - Individual and community attitudes toward sport - Health concerns

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Social Influences

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- Family support - Sport-environment (coach, teammates, win/loss record) - Teachers, counselors, older children - Heroes and tole models

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Demographic Influences

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- Geography - Climate - Age - Gender - Socioeconomic class

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Activities with the Greatest Growth in Participation Top 5 activities with greatest growth since 2000

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1. Pilates training: 456% 2. Elliptical trainer : 259% 3. Lacrosse: 131% 4. Table Tennis: 52% 5. Stretching: 48%

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Top Participant Sports Top 5 sports in millions 2008

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1. Basketball, 25,961 2. Soccer, 17.945 3. Tennis, 16,940 4. Baseball, 16.058 5. Volleyball, 15,844

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Concerns about youth participation

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- Exercise patterns of American youth are declining, especially in teens - Age 9: avg about 3 hours of moderate to vigorous physical activity on weekdays and weekends. - Age 15: avg 49 minutes and 35 minutes on weekends

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Factors in decline of youth sport participation

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- More screen time - Decline in recess and physical education - Decline in pickup games - Rise in one- sport specialization and elite teams

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Sport Spectators

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- Steady increase since 1920s - Live event viewing continuing to increase - Largest growth is in media spectatorship ( television and internet) -

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Influences on Sport Spectatorship Social and Economic Class

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- event attendance can cost US $100-200 for a family - High Class: polo, yachiting, sailing, racing - Middle Class: tennis, golf, sailing, skiing - Lower Class: auto racing, wrestling bowling, boxing - College sports are watched by college graduates - Baseball and football cross social classes

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Percentage of Americans who are fans

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- professional football: 64% - college football: 54% - professional baseball: 41% - figure skating: 41% - college basketball: 38%

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Marketing Sport

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- Opportunities to globalize sport marketing are growing - Companies carefully research historical and potential participants to reach audiences - Sponsors match product to spectator

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Sport and the economy

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- Todays professional and college sports are structured, organized, and quantified - Result of move from agrarian to industrialized society over past century - Sport has adopted corporate structure. Athletes became workers; team and bottom line emphasized - Industrialization led to sport consumers

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Ownership of Professional Sports

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- Majority are wealthy, powerful males - Small number of teams owned by public and organizations - Historically, owners loved the game and promoted the sport - Now its a business investment or means of promoting other products, with many financial advantages despite lost revenue

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Making money from Pro Sports Investments

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avg. value of an NFL team in 1996 was $228 million; now it is $1.04 billion ; over the past 15 years NFL franchises have increased in value by more than 500%

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Making money from Pro Sports Taxes

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Revenue lost offsets other profits

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Making money from Pro Sports Depreciation

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Players and assets who are depreciated

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Making money from Pro Sports ticket sales

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These account for 23% of NFL revenue

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Making money from Pro Sports Stadium revenue

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owners earn money from luxury boxes, concessions, and parking

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Making money from Pro Sports Media Revenue

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revenue from TV ranges from 15% to 60% of teams revenue

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Making money from Pro Sports Extras

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- fees are paid to license team merchandises - Naming rights sold

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Financing of Stadiums

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- New Stadium costs: several hundred million dollars ; since 1991 new baseball and football stadiums have relied on public funds for more than two-thirds of the costs - Public, private, or combination of funds ;Public: sales tax, proximity and beneficiary taxes, bed tax, bonds, tax increment financing ; Private: owner or league contributions, bank loans, local business loans, personal seat licenses

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Pros of buiding a stadium with public funds

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- Team can promote the city - Revenue increased for local businesses - Media attention increases tourism - Create local jobs

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Cons of building a Stadium with public funds

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- Money can be used for alternative purposes such as better public education, better city infrastructure, low-income housing for the poor - Team may threaten to leave (blackmail) if city doesn't provide a stadium

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Sport as a monopoly

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- Owners control competition and sales - Leagues collude to eliminate new leagues - Players can negotiate with only one team - New or expansion teams have to pay large fees and need approval to relocate - Owners cant individually sell merchandise

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Players Rights and Compensation

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- Players can negotiate with only one team - Salary caps or earnings are based on performance and limit wages - Avg. length of a professional sport career is less than 10 years - Making it to the pros does not mean an athlete is set for life

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College sports as moneymakers

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- University athletic departments are run as businesses with enormous budgets - Big programs can increase enrollment and contribution to other departments - Colleges can receive money from ticket sales, licensing fees, corporate sponsors, and television rights - Students often have to pay an athletic fee

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Recreational sports as moneymakers

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- With increased leisure time, recreation increases - Sales of sport equipment in US avg $50 billion per year - Leagues earn participation fees - Communities use funds to maintain public recreational areas

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Overview of Sport Media

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- Include print and electronic media - Media cater to indirect spectators rather than direct spectators who attend events - Media create excitement and significance for sport and promote identification with teams and athletes - Sport media provide entertainment and recreation in everyday lives

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Evolution of Sport Media

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- Late 1800s: first sports page - Early to mid-1900s: primarily newspaper and radio - 1950s: TV and more personal connection to sport - 1980s: ESPN growth as the first all-sport network - Present: Internet, social media growing dramatically, changing the fans experience

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Modern Media Internet

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- Real time access to more events and video and a more personal experience - Broadband available to more people ( 63% of Americans with broadband at home) - Ondemand websites for major events - Fantasy sports (27 million adults play) - Even minor sports reaching their audiences

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Modern Media other technologies

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- Cable channels, specialized sport networks, diffuse TV audience, increased programming options - Social Media: more discussion and news, including from the athletes themselves - Handheld devices: such as cell phones, with immediate and personalized information available

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Financial effects of sport media

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- The bulk of revenue for a sport event is television fees - Advertisers pay for rights, think Super Bowl - Greater revenue allows teams to pay athletes huge salaries - As teams rely more on TV money, TV gains control of sport

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Media Influence on Sport

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- Affects the popularity of a sport - Provides free publicity for local teams - Builds fan allegiance to teams dn players - Changes rules of sports - Causes declines in attendance rates - Dictates event scheduling - Promotes gambling

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How does sport influence media

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- Affects space allocated in print media - SPectator demographics dictate advertising - Sparks social issue debates in print - Spurs increased sponsorship in through increased TV programming on weekends - Attracts huge TV audiences - Fans dictate what sports are covered

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Ideology of sport through Media

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- No focus on wellness, physical activity -Values: competition, cooperation, history, tradition, perseverance, sacrifice, discipline - Success defined: " second is the first loser" - Gender: >hegemonic masculinity > reinforcement of notions of inferiority

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Ideology of Sport through Media: Race and Ethnicity

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- Focus on overcoming odds - Reinforcement of racial stereotypes on and off field - Persistent insensitivity > native american mascots > depictions of asian atheltes

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Careers in sport media

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- Sport journalists ( writers, announcers) - Annual salary of average US sport anchor: $50,600 - Tension between journalist and team - Increase in women journalists > still an alarmingly small percentage > criticism and harassment still present

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Four dimensions of Media Logic

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- Narrative - Intimacy - Commodification - Rigid time segmentation

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Narrative

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- TV tells a story - Usually in a predictable fashion - Usually using stock plots - Usually using stock characters

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Intimacy

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- Visual closeness of the TV viewer to the subject matter - Development of an emotional attachment between actor and viewer

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Commodification

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- Close tie between programming and commercial time - Use of the language of commodification in the description of sports events

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Rigid Time Segementation

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- The way in which program segments, commercial and entire programs are organized into short, rigid blocks of time

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Summary of Chapter 5

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- Print and electronic media affect popularity, finances,a nd structure of sport - Media have turned to sport for consistent revenue and increased coverage - Sport affects the ideology of a society influencing beliefs and values - Women are still underrepresented in sport journalism

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Historical Development of youth sport

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- From stickball to Little League, est. 1939 - Mostly games child organized until 50 years ago - Increase in girls participation since Title IX, 1972 - Family and society changes affecting popularity > working mothers > fear of child predators > safe haven for inner city kids > specialized training

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Sponsors of Youth Sport

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- Community or parks program - Community organizations - Nonprofit sport organizations - Corporate sponsors, local and national

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Current status of youth sport

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- in 2005, 59% of US children ages 10-17 played at least one organized sport -Team sport participation peaks at age 11 - More than 70% of US kids drop out of sport before high school

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Reasons for dropping out

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- emphasis on winning - stress placed on high performance, early specialization in one sport - expense - increased overuse injury rate - trend toward alternative sports - lack of trained coaches - early starting age leads to greater burnout

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Girls participation

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- Girls tend to enter sport later than boys - girls drop out sooner and in greater numbers - Girls more likely to take part in wide array of sports; boys stick to more traditional - In rural and urban areas, girls participate far less than boys

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Explosion of Extreme or action sports

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- Increased by 600% since 1990 - X games now mainstream - Extreme sports clearly not just a fad

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Effects of trends on youth and sport

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- decreased physical activity - Rising obesity rates - More than 5 hours a day of screen time - Altered sport preference > Basketball and soccer increasing while baseball, cycling decreasing > Individual sports remaining steady in participation

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Organizers of youth sport

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- Athlete organized sport: pickup games run by those playing; participation has significantly declined over the past 20 years - Adult organized sport: Organized sport and leagues run by parents, coaches and organizations; participation has continued to increase

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Athlete- Organized sport

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- Lots of action for all players - Flexible rules - Playing and spending time with friends - Freedom from adult interference or criticism - Results soon forgotten

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Adult Organizd Sport

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- Focus is on skill development, proper positioning - Strict rules and strategies reinforce conformity - Adults choose competition level, arbitrate rule infractions, determine who plays and where

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Why kids play sports

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- For fun! - Learn and improve skills - Stay in shape and exercise - Do something they are good at - Enjoy excitement of competition - Experience challenge of competition - Hang out with friends

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Why kids burn out

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- Its not Fun! - High anxiety over outcome - Performance anxiety - Low self esteem - Parental or coach pressure - Specialization; overtraining - Long practices - Too many games without recovery - Overemphasis on winning

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Reforms for Youth Sport

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- Bill of Rights for young athletes - National council of youth sports - National standards of youth sports - Educational programs for players, officials, coaches and parents - Sportsmanship, decreased pressure

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Trends in Interscholastic Sport

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- US participation at all-time high in 2008-2009, 55.2% of students (texas has most) - Most popular sports (by participant numbers) > boys: football, track, basketball, baseball, soccer > girls: track, basketball, volleyball, softball, soccer - Play for same reasons' in youth sport ( such as fun, skills, exercise)

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Types of Participants in high school sport

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- Reluctant participants: of participants, 25% joined due to outside pressure - Image conscious socializers: of participants, 40% are motivated by rewards or approval - Competence orientated athletes: these participants play fro the love of the game and for self-achievment

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Interscholastic sport and community

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- Commnuity programs often feed high school teams - Most successful interscholastic programs have solid youth programs - More affluent areas have better facilities - High school teams become more selective due to the talent pool, increasing the competitive nature

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Positive effects of participation in high school sport

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- Better academic performance, attendance - Development of moral, social, and long-term health - resistance to drug and alcohol abuse - Success in college - Fewer behavioral problems - Better self-image - Development of leadership skills

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Negative effects of participation in high school sport

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- Character development research is not clear - statistics do not include students who cannot play due to low grades - Increases tendency to binge drink - Emphasis is on athletics rather than academics - Girls struggle with identity conflict between traditional values and new opportunities

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Negative Socioeconomic effects of participation in high school sports

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- Schools now implement fee system that reinforce elitism and decreases participation by 30% - Better facilities and resources in higher socioeconomic areas - Athletes are generally from more privileged backgrounds, giving them a head start - Tensions (athletes vs non athletes)

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Intercollegiate Sport Profile

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- NCAA governs 1288 schools ;NAIA governs 300 schools ; National junior college athletic association (NJCAA) governs 550 two year schools - 418,000 NCAA atheltes in 23 sports ; 1981-2981: men- 167,055 women- 64,390 ; 2007-2008: men-240,261 women- 178,084 - Basketball top sport for men and women

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AIAW

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Until 1981, Intercollegiate Athletics for Women ran womans ports

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NCAA Division

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- Division 1 ;FBS: 119 colleges ; FCS: 119 colleges ; I- nonfootball = 93 colleges - D2: 291 colleges - D3: 429 colleges

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Positives about Intercollegiate sport

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- school pride - Distraction from hard work - Fame - Free publicity from media - Helps with future employment - Helps with discipline and time management

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Negatives about Intercollegiate sport

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- Atheltic programs often lose money - Pressured to operate as big business - Athletes sometimes not academically ready - Lack of time affects athletes' grades - Lack of time affects social life, circle of friends - Programs sometimes engage in illegal recruiting - Athletes isolated on campus - "easy" majors are encouraged - Sport events can be big parties for students

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The Drake Group: 7 suggested reforms for college sport

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1. athletes must maintain a 2.0 GPA 2. no freshman eligibility allowed 3. sport may not conflict with class schedule 4. reform one-year renewable scholarships 5. eliminate term student-athlete 6. remove special academic support 7. publicly disclose course information

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Globalization of Modern Sport

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- Traditions began with Greek civilization - SPort expanded with British empire - Nationalism emerged - western culture brings modern advances - Dominance is shifting toward developed countries in certain sports (ex. cricket in India, Olympics in Beijing)

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Issues of globalization

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-Less nationalistic displays and more commercial displays - Some corporations have larger economies than some countries - International sports are used as a means to promote the interests of corporate capitalism

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Global Consumption of sport

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- The shoe wards, from adidas to Reebok, and domination by Nike - Increase in casual dress boost of sports apparel industry - Use of labor form developing countries by companies like Nike - Sponsorship of countries and teams - Television corporate sponsors

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Sporting goods and globalization

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- Free Trade Agreements (GATT& NAFTA) - Coporations are taxed at much lower rate when they move products from country to country - It is cost effective to sell large amounts of goods in wealthy countries and locate production facilities in labor-intensive poor nations

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Nike Social Movement Objectives

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- Subsistence wage - Safe working conditions - Freedom to organize - Respect fro the human rights of Nike workers

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Popularity of Sport Worldwide

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1. Soccer: Most watched sport event in world is World Cup (2010 US viewing up 50%) 2. Basketball: In 2008-2009, 77 NBA players were from 32 countries 3. Baseball: In MLB, 29% of the players are international

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Ten most popular sports in the world

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1. Soccer 2. Cricket 3. Field Hockey 4. Tennis 5. Volleyball 6. Table Tennis 7. Basketball 8. Baseball 9. Rugby 10. Golf

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American Influence on World Sport

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- American colleges and professional leagues attract many of the top athletes worldwide - American sports in top ten worldwide include volleyball, basketball, and baseball - Athletes and families will go to extremes for a chance to play in American leagues - United States offers financial and cultural attraction for international athletes

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The Olympic Games

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- Increase communication between countries - Attract huge audiences worldwide - Promote cultural awareness - Set standards for rules in certain sports and has standardized them worldwide in many cases

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Media effect on Globalization of Sport

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- Satellite and cable broadcasting and the internet increase the fan base - Sport receives big bucks from TV broadcast rights and so caters to TV wishes, as in domestic market - Result: Enormous revenue for international events; enormous growth potential for domestic leagues to expand fan base

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Nationalism vs. Economics

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- Historically, international competition driven by national pride - Shift toward economic model: > corporate sponsors of countries, teams,events >2004 US olympic team sponsored by Roots, a canadian clothing company > large income from TV network sponsorship

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International Travel in Sport

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- Athletes and coaches often travel, work and play internationally - Coaches are often hired in other countries to develop a sport - Agents of athletes often travel to watch their clients - Constant touring may lead to strain and burnout

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Issues for athletes

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- Personal adjustment of migrating athletes - Rights of athletes as workers in various nations - Impact of talent migration on the nations from and to which athletes migrate - Impact of athlete migration on patterns of personal, cultural, and national identity formation

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Using Sport for international understanding

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- Athletes of all ages have international competition opportunities - International travel and competition increase appreciation of other cultures - Breaks for travel may provide balance to training and competition - Interactions between coaches can increase world outlook

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History of the Ancient Olympics

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- Started in Greece in 776 BC to honor Zeus - First festival was only one foot race - Held every 4 years until 394 AD - Common men competed against soldiers - By 18th Olympics, pentathalon was an event - Christian emperor banned pagan worship -Reborn in Athens in 1896 with 14 countries

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Effects of the Olympic Games

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- Cost and lasting effects on the host city (inn 2008 Beijing cost more than $43 Billion) - Huge financial and commercial influence on media (NBC spent $2 billion to broadcast 2010 and 2012 events, a 46% increase - Rise of elite athletes and importance of winning - Shift from amateur to professional athletes

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What is the Olympic motto?

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"citius, altus, fortius" (swifter higher stronger)

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Influence on Promoting Nationalism

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- National committees pick athletes to represent their country - Ceremonies include flags and anthems - All athletes march together behind their flag in one uniform - Governments use games to promote political structure (1938 Berline games: Nazi Germany) - Olympics are now a big business event

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Political Structure of Olympic Movement

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-IOC oversees 202 national Olympic committees (NOCs) - NOCs promote Olympic principles and determine how to select and send athletes - NOCs leverage nationalism - Like all human organizations, Olympics are inherently political

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United States Olympic Committee

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- Receives no funding from US government - Funded by private donations, sponsors - Membership categories > National governing bodies > Paralympic sport organizations > Affiliated and community based organizations

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USOC Structural Changes

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- Until 2004, 100 board member - scandals cause government intervention - Now smaller committees, annual reporting - Current Goals: > develop athletes at grassroots level > provide access to elite training programs > support olympic athletes' training and competition

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USOC Mission Statement

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"To assist in finding opportunities for every American to participate in sport, regardless of gender, race, age, geography, or physical ability."

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Pursuit of Medals

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- US medals dominance since USSR broke up - US baseball did not qualify for 2004 Olympic Games; baseball and softball no longer part of Ogames -China and other Asian countries vying for top medal slot

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USOC athelte development

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- USOC is in charge of identifying athlete talent, but no single system is in place - Trainign facilities are spreading from a few Olympic training centers to smaller metropolitan sites - USOC provides support and materials to develop coaching

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Proposals to Changes to Olympics

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- Decrease commercialism - Eliminate nationalsim - Ensure drug free competition - Decrease size and cost of hosting events - Increase security

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Good Sporting Behavior

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The ethical behavior exhibited by a sportsperson or athlete generally considered to involve participation for the pleasure gained from a fair and hard-fought contest, refusal to take unfair advantage of a situation or of an opponent, courtesy toward one's opponent, and graciousness in both winning and losing.

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Sporting Behavior at Different Levels

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- The behavior of professional athletes influences youth athletes - Media and coaches emphasize wining and competition - Athlete needs to be taught fair play, moral development, character - Participation sports tend to be more balanced

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Youth Attitudes toward sporting behavior

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Survey of 5,275 of high school athletes report - girls more committed to honesty and fair play - Baseball, football, and basketball players indicated inclination to worse behavior - Poor behavior by coaches was reported by 25% to 33% - Of males, 60% thought it proper to inflict pain - Majority said hazing, stealing, cheating okay

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Development of Moral Values Kohlberg's 6 stages of moral reasoning

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- Pre coventional 1. punishment and obedience 2. Pressure or pain - Conventional 3. Good boy or girl 4. Law and Order -Post conventinal 5. social contract 6. principled conscience

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Barriers to good Sporting Behavior

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- Importance placed on winning - Intellectual understanding - Coaches attitudes - parental Pressure - Traditions and customs

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Sports as a builder of character and morals

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- Values can be learned through sport socialization - Some factors related to sporting behavior ; sport type ; performance level ; position

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Two types of character

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- Social character: teamwork, loyalty, work ethic, and perseverance - Moral character: honesty, fairness, integrity and reasonability

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Sport Ethic of high performance sport

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- Striving for excellence - Competing to win - Sacrifice - Love of the game - Commitment to team - Playing with pain and adversity

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Strategies for Good Sporting Behavior

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1. Parents teach values to kids at young age 2. Coaches and officials need to prohibit play if rules are not followed 3. Parents, coaches model good behavior 4. Fans decrease rowdiness and alcohol use 5. Professional athletes and organizations must realize that they are role models 6. We must reward good behavior

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Deviant Behavior

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Behavior that is beyond "normal" behavior; can be good or bad

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Underconformity

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Breaking the rules, not adhering to norms

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Overconformity

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Internalizing the rules to the extreme

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Rule Breaking in Sport

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- Occurs accidentally and intentionally - Probably less of this behavior now with increase in officiating, media, TV replays - Organizations promote good behavior - Include steeper penalties for types

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Examples of rule Breaking

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- modifying equipment - committing intentional fouls - faking injuries for timeouts - participating in brawls - often done for strategic advantage

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Role of Excitement and Emotion Athletes

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- stress of competition - consumed by emotion -optimal levels of arousal and intensity

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Role of Excitement and Emotion Fans

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- Increase in excitement and arousal with tailgating and alcohol use - hooliganism

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Violence in Society

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- media exposure and occasional leniency to accused offenders who are athletes give perception that athletes are more violent then other segments of society - Sport mirrors society in cogent acts and acceptance of violent acts

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On field violence in sport

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- Demands of collision and contact sports - enforcer roles - societal view of masculinity encouraging warrior mentality - part of the game(5 for fighting, NFLs dirtiest player) -

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Off Field violence in sport

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- unclear if onfield violence leads to off field violence - alcohol use escalates violence incidence ( athletes more prone to binge drinking) - some sports may not cause more violent off-field behavior, but rather attract people who are already more violent - Challenges to manhood occur off the field

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Violence against women

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Three-year study: -Athletes make up 3% of college population, but account for 19% of sexual assaults and 35% of domestic assaults on campus. -Athletes commit one in three sexual assaults. -General population conviction rate is 80% for sexual assaults, but only 38% for athletes. Sense of entitlement

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Consequences of on field violent behavior

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- shortened careers ( reduced earnings) - pessure to return from injuries, regardless of source - concussion: a change in view recently - negative publicity for teams, leagues, organizations poor behavior modeling

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Performance enhancers

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- athletes may use steroids and other drugs to enhance athletic performance ; increase use and scandal among athletes ; random drug testing in olympics and some professional leagues - not a new phenomenon, but more media exposure

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Types of drugs used by modern atheltes

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- Prescription,over the counter: promote healing, mask pain, risks are long term - stimulants: in us for decades inrease arousal and energy levels - anabolic steroids: increase muscle size, speed and strength, improves ability of muscles to train quickly after exhaustion - others: HGH, doping, amino acids

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Anabolic- Androgenic Steroids

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- testosterone: primary natural male hormone - also present in females but in lesser amounts

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Andorgenic

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- masculinzing effects: ; growth of facial hair ; growth of body hair ; deepeining of the voice

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Anabolic

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Tissue building effects - increases in muscle cell size - increases in strength

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Reasons for use

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- accepted medical uses - to enhance ahtletic performance - to improve appearance

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Methods of administration

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-orally - by injection - topically

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Groups of Users

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- college athletes - olympic athletes - weightlifters -professional athletes -adolescent age school children

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Effects of steroid use

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- short term vs. long term - physical and physiological vs. psychological -long term effects not very well documented - many short term effects are reversible when use ceases

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Key Point: In London 2012 Olympics, there will be a record number of drug tests

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More than 5,000 blood and urine tests will be administered, and a few weeks later, an additional 1,200 tests will be carried out at the Paralympics at the same venue (Beikoff 2010b).

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Potential Issues with drug use

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- growing rejection by fans, parents, kids - withdrawal of financial support - acceptnace - long term health risks - youth athletes emulating the big leagues - females: risks to future pregnancies - genetic engineering

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Scandals

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- East Germans - Chinese swimmers -cyclists - Ben johnson -Major League Baseball Players

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Responding to Drug Use in sport

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- IOC and WADA efforts - Government involvement (hearings) - Sport organizations caring for athletes and seeing it as management and labor issue - media being fair and balanced (not blaming) - parents, educational programs - sport and exercise scientists

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Eating Disorders

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- up to 33% of female athletes reported to have eating disorders (higher than non athletes) - Sport attracts the disciplined, determined - includes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, disordered eating, compulsive exercise - eating disorders among females athletes have increased since title IX - coaches and parents can inadvertently encourage eating disorders

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Female athlete triad

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- disordered eating - amenorrhea - osteoporosis

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Role of Government activity and health

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U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention -Links information on PA and quality of life. -Sets recommendations for PA. 1950s Council on Youth Fitness President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (created in 1961)

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Role of Government in Sport

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- Designates the USOC but does not provide its funding - Intervenes when there are scandals or social issues in sport (MLB steroid use and drug testing) - Protects rights of americans - promotes equal opportunities - protects financial interests of the public

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Governments use of sport to promote unity and identity

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- cities work to attract pro teams to increase the attractiveness of the city - sport unifies strangers and provides topics of conversation - sport promotes collective identity through apparel - cities and countries hold special sporting events

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Nationalism and sport

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- patriotic symbols and colors at international competitions - national anthem played before games - army/navy game - expression of loyalty in hard time - historic olympic boycotts - olympics, major events as terrorist targets

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Use of sport to promote social values

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- capitalist society > competition, hard work, winner - socialist society > teamwork, fitness, friendship - potential to integrate people from diverse backgrounds in areas of conflict

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Sport and Society

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- sport distracts from difficult times of life - sport helps maintain the status quo (male dominance traditional values) - sport can change society - assort can promote politicians

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Politics within Sport organizations

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- sports are run by international governing bodies - if there more than one organization for a particular sport, each struggles for control - federations have less control, so their role is confusing - the NCAA has unchecked control - Difficult to create new pro leagues, tours

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Politics in youth sport organizations

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-There are single-sport organizations and multisport (Amateur Athletic Union) organizations. -National Federation of State High School Associations has minimal central control, state by state variations in rules, policies.

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