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Values

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People's "core conceptions" about what is desirable for their own lives and for society. Values guide people's judgments and actions

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Two-Sided Argument

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Argument in which the speaker acknowledges an argument against his or her thesis, then uses evidence and reasoning to refute that argument

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Core Belief

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A long- and closely held viewpoint that is particularly immune to persuasion

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Peripheral Belief

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Viewpoint that is not held as closely or for quite as long as a core belief; thus, people holding it may be open to persuasion

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Full Disclosure

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Formally acknowledging one's own vested interest in a topic before presenting one's arguments, to reveal any potential conflicts of interest

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Casual Pattern

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Speech organization pattern that explains cause-and-effect relationships in which each main point is either an event that leads to a situation or a link in a chain of events between a catalyst and a final outcome

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Comparison Pattern

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Speech organization pattern that discusses the similarities and differences between two events, objects, or situations; especially useful when comparing a new subject to one with which the audience is familiar

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Categorical Pattern

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Speech organization pattern in which each main point emphasizes one of the most important aspects of the topic; often used if a speaker's topic doesn't easily conform to spatial, temporal, casual, comparison, problem-cause-solution, criteria-application, or narrative pattern

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Criteria-Application Pattern

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Speech organization pattern that proposes standards for the value judgment a speaker is making, then applies those standards to a related topic. For example, a speaker arguing that a city should budget money to renovate one of its crumbling historic neighborhoods, the speaker would first define the criteria for a "historic neighborhood," then discuss how the city's neighborhood is historic and worth renovating

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Motivated Sequence

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Aims to establish five main points; attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, action

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Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

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Speech organization pattern that identifies a problem, explains the problem's causes, and proposes one or more solutions, which often include asking an audience to support a policy or take a specific action

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Persuasive Speech

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Aims to influence that audience member's beliefs, attitudes, or actions, to which end it employs strategic discourse and calls for the audience to accept fact, value, and policy claims

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Fact Claim

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Statement asserting that something is true or false, such as "Animal experimentation is necessary for human survival."

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Value Claim

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A statement that attaches a judgement -such as deeming something good, bad, moral, or immoral - to a subject. For example: "Animal experimentation is inhumane."

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Policy Claim

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Statement that advocates action by organizations, institutions, or members of the audience. For example: "Anyone opposed to animal experimentation should join an activist organization, such as the Humane Society, to help put a stop to this cruel and unnecessary practice."

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

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Model showing two ways that audiences members may evaluate a persuasive speaker's message: the central and peripheral routes

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Central Route

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An Elaboration Likelihood Model route to evaluate a speakers message. Denotes a high level of elaboration - a mental process that involves actively processing a speaker's arguments

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Peripheral Route

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An Elaboration Likelihood Model route to evaluate a speakers message. Uses tangential cues (low elaboration), such as attractiveness of the speaker, flashy presentation aids, or certain aspects of the speaker's delivery

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Strategic Disclosure

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Process of selecting arguments that will best achieve a speaker's rhetorical purpose in an ethical manner

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Latitude of Acceptance

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Range of positions on a given issue that are acceptable to an audience

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Latitude of Rejection

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Range of positions on a given issue that are unacceptable to an audience

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Boomerang Effect

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Act of pushing an audience more firmly toward its previously held beliefs as a result of the speaker choosing a position that falls on the extreme end of the audience's latitude of rejection

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Needs

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Objects an audiences desires and the feelings they have that must be satisfied

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Hierarchy of Needs

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Theory that divides human needs into five levels and emphasizes that people's most basic needs must be met before they will focus on less essential ones. Psychologist Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs begins with physiological needs, followed by safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs

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Describe three goals of persuasive speeches.

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1. Strengthen their commitment 2. Weaken their commitment 3. Promote audience action

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What are the three types of claims used in a persuasive speech?

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1. Fact Claim: Asserts something is true or false 2. Value Claim: Attaches judgement (good, bad, moral, or immoral) to a subject 3. Policy Claim: Advocates action by organizations, institutions, or members of your audience

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Describe the Elaboration Likelihood Model. What are the differences between central route and peripheral route processing of a message?

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Elaboration Likelihood Model: Two ways audience members may evaluate a speaker's message. Central Route: Uses a high level of elaboration Peripheral Route: Uses low levels of elaboration

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Describe 6 ways in which a speaker may adapt his or her message for an audience.

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1. Adapting to Audience Dispostion 2. Appealing to Your Audience's Needs 3. Connecting to Your Listeners' Values 4. Demonstrating How Your Audience Benefits 5. Acknowledging Listeners' Reservations 6. Focusing on Peripheral Beliefs

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What four steps can you take to ensure that your persuasive speech is ethical?

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1. Help Your Audience Make an Informed Decision 2. Research Your Facts 3. Note Any Biases 4. Attribute Your Research Property

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Describe two ways to organize a persuasive speech for each of the following: a fact claim, a value claim, and a policy claim.

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Fact Claim: Casual Pattern, Comparison Pattern, Categorical Pattern Value Claim: Criteria-Application Pattern, Categorical Pattern Policy Claim: Monroe's Motivated Sequence and Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

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Ethos (Credibility)

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Inspiring belief in an audience by conveying a sense of the speaker's knowledge, honesty, trustworthiness, experience, authority, or wisdom

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Competence

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Knowledge and experience in a subject

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Trustworthiness

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Characteristic of exhibiting honesty and fairness. Often seen as one component of a speaker's ethos

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Goodwill

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Speakers wanting what is best for their audience rather than what would most benefit themselves

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Logos

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Sound reasoning that supports a speaker's claims and makes the argument more persuasive to an audience

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Evidence

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Information gathered from a credible sources that helps a speaker support his or her claims

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Fallacious (Faulty) Reasoning

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Type of faulty, and thus unsound, reasoning in which the link between a claim and its supporting material is weak

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Precise Evidence

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Supporting materials consisting of specific dates, places, numbers, and other facts

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Inductive Reasoning

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Generalizing from facts, instances, or examples, and then making a claim based on that generalization. If a couple has two bad experiences in a row at the same restaurant, they might conclude that they will always have a bad experience at that restaurant

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Example Reasoning

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Presenting specific instances to support a general claim in the hope that they will be sufficient to convince listeners that the claim is reasonable or true

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Representative Example

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Instance typical of the class it represents. For example, if a speaker is arguing that Americans are getting tired of corrupt politicians, providing representative examples would mean citing instances from across the country rather than from only one or two states or regions

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Comparison Reasoning

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Arguing that two instances are similar enough that what is true for one is likely to be true for the other. If a speaker argues that U.S. residents will eventually accept mandatory health insurance because they accepted mandatory car insurance, the speaker is using this.

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Sign Reasoning

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Arguing that a fact is true because indirect indicators are consistent with that fact. For example, a speaker might argue that the US is in a recession, supporting that claim with evidence that people are making greater use of payday loan businesses

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Casual Reasoning

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Arguing that one event has caused another

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Hasty Generalization

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Misusing logic and deceiving an audience by asserting that a piece of evidence - one that applies to a limited number of cases - applies to all cases

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Post Hoc Fallacy

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Incorrectly naming the cause of one event as the event that immediately preceded it

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Reversed Causality

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Missing the fact that the effect is actually the cause

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Ad Populum (Bandwagon) Fallacy

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Misuse of logic that deceives an audience by claiming that a fact is true because a majority of people believe it to be true. Another form of this fallacy (often used in advertising and marketing) is to imply that because a large number of people are engaging in an activity, everyone should engage in the activity. Is unethical if speakers fail to provide support for their claims

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Ad Hominem (Personal Attack) Fallacy

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Persuading an audience to dislike someone by targeting his or her character rather than the relevant issues

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Straw Person Fallacy

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Substituting a real claim with a weaker claim that a speaker can more easily refute. If a mayor proposes that bike lanes be added to a city's main thoroughfares, but the city council argues that it would be prohibitively expensive to add bike lanes to every street in the city, the city council is committing this fallacy

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Slippery Slope Fallacy

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Arguing against a policy because one assumes (without proof) that it will inevitably lead to another outcome that is undesirable. For example, "If we legalize marijuana, that will be the first step toward legalization of all drugs, which would create a public health catastrophe."

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False Dilemma Fallacy

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Speaker incorrectly claiming that there are only two possible choices to solve a problem, that one of them is wrong, and that the audience should therefore support the speaker's solution. You can usually detect this fallacy if you know that are more than two choices

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Appeal to Tradition Fallacy

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Arguing that a practice or policy is good because people have followed it for a long time

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Pathos

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Appealing to an audience's emotions

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Fear Appeal

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Form of pathos in which an argument arouses fear in the minds of audience members

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Loaded Language Fallacy

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Unethical use of emotionally charged words to convey meaning that is not supported by factual evidence

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Explain the three primary elements of credibility.

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1. Understand their listeners' needs and feelings 2. Empathize with their audiences' views (even if they don't share them) 3. Respond quickly to others' communication

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Indicate six steps you can take to enhance your own credibility.

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1. Share your qualifications to speak on the topic 2. Present strong evidence from reputable sources 3. Highlight common ground with the audience 4. Choose your words carefully 5. Show respect for conflicting opinions 6. Practice your speech until your delivery is fluent

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What are four mistakes you can make that may harm your credibility?

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1. Getting your facts wrong 2. Pronouncing words incorrectly 3. Failing to acknowledge potential conflicts of interest 4. Stretching to find a connection with the audience

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What are three fundamental components of a logical message?

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1. Using Evidence 2. Using Reasoning 3. Avoiding Logical Fallacies

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Identify and explain eight logical fallacies.

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1. Hasty Generalization: Bases a conclusion on limited or unrepresentative examples 2. Post Hoc Fallacy: Believing an event that occurred before another cause the second event 3. Ad Populum (bandwagon) Fallacy: Believe something because a large number of people do 4. Ad Hominem (personal attack) Fallacy: Attacking an opponent 5. Straw Person Fallacy: Replacing a claim with a weaker claim 6. Slippery Slope Fallacy: Argue against a policy because you assume (without proof) that it will lead to some second policy that is undesirable 7. False Dilemma Fallacy: There are only two solutions to a problem and one is wrong 8. Appeal to Tradition Fallacy: Idea or policy is good because it has been followed for a long time

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What factors come into play when making an emotional appeal?

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Playing on the audiences' emotions

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What kinds of practices can harm an emotional appeal?

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1. Not establishing a connection with the audience 2. Using the loaded language fallacy

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