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Attitude

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tendency to evaluate objects favorably or unfavorably

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Evaluation

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The AFFECTIVE component of an attitude; The emotional component of an attitude; we "feel" one way or another about something

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Belief

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The COGNITIVE component of an attitude; we contain a set of beliefs about the topic pertaining to the attitude

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Behavior

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A controversial component of an attitude; a reflection of one's attitude vs. the outcome variable of an attitude

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Direct Measurement

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A way of measuring attitudes; usually conducted through surveys and interviews; can either be Likert or Sematic Differential

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Likert

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Type of direct measurement for measuring attitudes; method of summated ratings; revolves around the BELIEF component of an attitude, or the cognitive component

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Sematic Differential

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Type of direct measurement for measuring attitudes; uses ratings of opposite adjective pairs to rate the attitude; revolves around the EVALUATION component of an attitude, or the affective component

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Indirect Measurement

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A way of measuring attitudes; split into physiological measures, bogus pipeline, or implicit association test

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Physiological Measures

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A type of indirect measurement for measuring attitudes; consists of galvanic skin response or facial EMG

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Bogus Pipeline

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A type of indirect measurement for measuring attitudes; a fake lie detector test in which people are much more likely to tell truths about socially undesirable attitudes because they believe the rigged machine, the rigged "bogus pipeline", is real.

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Implicit Association Test

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A type of indirect measurement for measuring attitudes; reaction time to associating two adjectives with one another (yes or no) is measured. Faster reaction times imply closer association because you have to go through less schema links to connect the two.

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1934 experiment and 1969 meta-experiment

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Studied how willing hotels were to let Chinese stay after reserving ahead; a badly planned study. The meta-study found that attitudes are NOT good predictors of behavior.

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Measurement Relevance

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A characteristic that leads to high consistency between attitudes and behavior; when testing attitude and behavior, both aspects must be both specific or general (ex: birth control pills)

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Strength of Attitude

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A characteristic that leads to high consistency between attitudes and behavior; the more the attitude means to you, the more consistent your behavior is

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Information

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A way to strengthen your attitude so it is more consistent with your behavior; the more info people have on a topic, the stronger their attitudes become

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Direct Experience

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A way to strengthen your attitude so it is more consistent with your behavior; having been in a situation tied to the attitude helps you so that your behavior "flows" directly from that experience (ex: gym vs. dorms)

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Personal Importance

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A way to strengthen your attitude so it is more consistent with your behavior; when something matters to you individually, your attitude and behavior tend to line up more

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Reasoned Action Model (Theory of Planned Behavior)

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Proposed that in order to best predict behavior, what is most important is that person's "behavioral intention", which is influenced by: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control

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Subjective Norm

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A component that influences a person's "behavioral intention" in the reasoned action model; reflects what other people think about that behavior, and how it would make you look (ex: sexually active students on a college campus)

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Perceived Behavior Control

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A component that influences a person's "behavioral intention" in the reasoned action model; accounts for the amount of variance that the first two components, attitude and subjective norm, do not account for; the extent to which you feel your behavior is under your control

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Self Efficacy

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Synonymous with perceived behavior control; the extent to which you feel your behavior is under your control (ex: wanting to make a slam dunk aligns with first two components, but you inability to do it makes your behavior inconsistent with your attitude)

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Learning Theories

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A component of attitude change theories; consists of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning

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Classical Conditioning (automatic response)

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A type of learning theory; introducing a stimulus that creates an automatic response (ex: Pavlov's dogs, Jaws music, taster version)

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Taster Version

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A type of classical conditioning learning theory; something bad happening to one after eating a particular food causes the person to associate the negative experience with the food, even if there was no link. Taster versions are a very long-lasting form of classical conditioning.

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Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement)

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A type of learning theory; Notion that external influences (reinforcements, awards, punishments) change people's attitudes and shape who you are.

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Social Learning (Observation)

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A type of learning theory; even if it is not you specifically receiving the operant conditioning, just watching it happen to someone else is enough to change your attitude

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Cognitive Motivation/Balance

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An attitude change theory; based off the notion that our attitudes, behaviors, and sense of self are all aligned, and we go to lengths to keep them that way

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Cognitive Dissonance

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A type of cognitive motivation; reframing of one's cognitive, or belief, attitudes to ease the tension in their alignment of attitude/behavior/self. Many studies and examples; it is crucial that the behavior that comes about as a result of the reframing is VOLUNTARY. Directly opposed to learning theory.

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$1 vs. $20 Study

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People who were paid a dollar to lie actually enjoyed it; people who actually did it for a dollar start to feel a tension in their sense of self/behavior/attitude; "what kind of a person lies to this innocent person for money?" so in order to ease this tension, they reframe their mind so they think the task was actually enjoyable and did not lie Those who were paid 20$ did not say they enjoyed it (told truth) because it did not go against their cognitive balance; they felt 20$ was worth it and they had valid reason

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Initiation Study

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By taking a low or high tension initiation, subjects can gain access to a conversation on biology of birds and bees; before they left, the subjects were asked whether or not they would want to come back. People who went through the easy initiation did not want to come back, while those who went through the harsh initiation said they would. The latter were motivated to reduce the tension by saying to themselves, I had this embarrassing conversation but the conversation I earned was really worth it.

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Grasshopper study

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There is this tension between having the guy be really mean to you and asking you to eat the grasshopper; tension is produced from the fact that you actually do it. You think, I wasn't eating them for him, but I actually did it for myself; they tasted good.

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Balance Theory

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A type of cognitive motivation/balance way to change one's attitude; assigns three objects that each pertain to an attitude negative or positive association; multiplying them together will give you an overall sign. If the overall sign is the same as the sign that occurs more often, there is no tension, and vice versa. If there is tension, a motivation to return to balance is induced, the easiest one to change usually being changed.

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Reactance

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A type of cognitive motivation/balance way to change one's attitude; When you feel something is being taken away from you unfairly, a tension is created and you actually desire it more.

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Persuasion Approach

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An attitude change theory; In which people simply try to provide explanations as to why you should do something; persuading you about something regarding your attitude stance

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Message Learning

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A type of persuasion approach in changing attitude; consists of source factors, recipient factors, message factors and medium factors

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Cognitive Response Theory

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A type of persuasion approach in changing attitude; posits that what matters more in persuasion approach is one's nature of response to the message; people are under controlled processing and are paying attention; if they feel positively they will change their attitude

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Heuristic Approach

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A type of persuasion approach in changing attitude; posits that what matters more in persuasion approach is the specific heuristic activated by persuasion; people are under automatic processing and are not paying attention, so they take mental shortcuts to persuade themselves

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

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Argues that there are two main routes of persuasion- central or peripheral, which can either result in an attitude change or lack thereof. (ex: kennedy vs. nixon video debate, computer advertising, lawyer cigar trick)

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Conformity

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A manner of social influence that changes one's beliefs or behavior to be more consistent with group standards

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Normative Social Influence

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A type of conformitive social influence; the desire to be liked ("fit-in")

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Informative Social Influence

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A type of conformative social influence; the desire to be right, or out of a desire to behave correctly

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Sheriff's Autokinetic Effect

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A study on conformity as social influence; when people were put together in groups, there was much less variance in how much they predicted the light on the wall was moving. While the norm might have been different for each group, the convergent behavior was the same. The norms were also passed down generationally to the next line of subjects.

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Asch Line Study

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A study on conformity as social influence; argued that when it came to normative vs. informative social influence, NORMATIVE was much more influential. Most people gave the wrong answer about the line length (being second to last) to better conform, EVEN WHEN they knew the answer was wrong (so cannot be informative). They just wanted to fit in.

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Johnny Rocco Study

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A study on conformity as social influence; placed one liberal in a group of conservatives and observed behavior. Once views were established, the majority turned on the minority and tried to convince them by way of both normative and informative influence. Most people ended up moving to the majority opinion. The study also found that with one more minority, their confidence in their view increased.

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Social Support

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A factor of reducing conformity; if one more person is in the minority, you feel a lesser need to conform

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Compliance

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A manner of social influence in which we do what we are asked to do, even if we do not want to

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Mindless Conformity

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A phenomenon in compliance; the use of heuristics and cognitive miser state, automatic processing

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Langer Study

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A study on compliance as social influence; asking to use the printer for a bs "placebo reason"; we take a heuristic and the reason is still effective (ties back to mindless conformity)

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Norm of Reciprocity

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A phenomenon in compliance; if you do something for me, I feel obligated to help you out as well; oftentimes subjects end up reciprocating in a much bigger way, even if the aid is unbalanced

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Soda Study

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A study on compliance as social influence, and more specifically on the norm of reciprocity; you buy a raffle ticket more expensive than the soda the confederate bought you. Because it's the first chance you were given to return the favor, you go ahead and reciprocate before realizing that they are unequal.

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Hare Krishna

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A study on compliance as social influence, and more specifically on the norm of reciprocity; if you took a pamphlet/flyer etc., you were more likely to "repay" them with money, conversation, etc.

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Door in the Face

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An example of compliance as social influence, and more specifically on the norm of reciprocity; A negotiation strategy in which one sells something for a higher value than it actually is, then lowers it, so the person feels obligated to pay because of the fake favor; a "scaling down to the actual goal"

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Zoo Study

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A study on compliance as social influence, and more specifically on the norm of reciprocity; door in the face example; because the people were first asked to do a lot of work, overseeing one simple trip seems like a lot less and they say yes.

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Watergate

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An example of compliance as social influence, and more specifically on the norm of reciprocity; door in the face example; pitching of a highly outrageous plan so Nixon would feel obligated to go along with it

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That's Not All

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A strategy that demonstrates norm reciprocity in compliance as social influence; offering something for free instead of splitting the price

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Commitment

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A phenomenon of compliance as social influence; getting people to commit to a certain course of action makes it more likely that they will follow through later on

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Foot in the Door

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A strategy demonstrating commitment phenomenon; The strategy of getting someone to first doing something small for you, and then asking for something a little larger later on. You get them to commit to a course of action, and they think "since I already did this, I might as well do this too"

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Drive Safe study

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A study on commitment as compliance as social influence; If one signed the petition, they became more likely to put the ugly sign in their yard

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Low-Balling

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A strategy demonstrating commitment phenomenon; getting people to commit to something, and once they have, you change the parameters so that what they agreed to becomes something much larger.

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7AM Study

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A study on low-balling as a strategy on commitment as a social influence; if people were asked simply about participation first and then sprung with the 7AM bit, they were more likely to show up because they'd committed to the prior parameters.

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Car Sales Tactic

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A strategy demonstrating low-balling as a strategy on commitment as a social influence; makes customer commit to buying a car and presents a car with more expensive parameters.

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Law of Sacristy

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A phenomenon of compliance as social influence; the idea of a "one time deal" or "limited time offer", which makes you feel like something is being taken away from you unfairly (related to reactance)

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Obedience to Authority

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A manner of social influence in which you comply to someone because they are in a position of authority; involves six bases of social power

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Milgram Study

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Shock study that demonstrated tendency of obedience to authority to be a social influence

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Performance Before

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A form of group behavior; having to do something publicly (talent show, speech, etc.)

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Social Facilitation

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Theory of performance before that proposes that arousal enhances the dominant response; whether that dominant response is good or bad depends on how well you are prepared

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Maze Study

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A study on performance before that aligns with social facilitation; if it was an easy maze people went faster being watched, and but slower while not being watched (less arousal).

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Yerkes-Dodson Model

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A model on social facilitation of performance before; states that while arousal operates on a continuum, there will be an optimal point of arousal at which going over would overwhelm you but going under would undermine you. Where this point rests depends upon your level of comfort/preparation. If it is a well-learned task, the optimal point is at higher arousal, and vice versa.

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Social Impact Theory

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A theory on social facilitation of performance before; quantifies arousal through equation Arousal = f (strength x immediacy x number)

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Intragroup Behavior

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The second component of group behavior that focuses on behavior WITHIN groups.

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Social Loafing

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A phenomenon of intragroup behavior; People tend to not maximize their effort, or work as hard, in a group than you would if you were by yourself (demonstrated through clapping, shouting, sports activities, etc.)

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Diffusion of Responsibility

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A possible reason for social loafing in intragroup behavior; responsibility for the group gets divided so no one feels 100% responsible

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Deindividuation

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A possible reason for social loafing in intragroup behavior; your own work cannot be quantified or tied back to you specifically. Making this identifiable helps to decrease social loafing.

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Free Riding

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A possible reason for social loafing in intragroup behavior; saving energy and piggybacking on efforts of others will be more beneficial over time.

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Additive Task

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A group task type that affects intragroup performance; when premium is on maximizing group output and the final result depends on group as a whole. Getting rid of deindividuation motivates the members to try to get them into controlled processing.

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Compensatory Task

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A group task type that affects intragroup performance; the premium is on accuracy, but group output is an average of individual members' accuracy. People are more cognitively engaged and under controlled processing in this case.

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Dysjunctive Task

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A group task type that affects intragroup performance; the supposition that the group is only as good as its best member; sometimes this best member cannot emerge due to personality traits

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Conjunctive Task

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A group task type that affects intragroup performance; opposite of dysjunctive task in that the group is only as good as its worst member (ex: crew rowing)

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Group polarization

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An issue of intragroup behavior; the tendency of individuals to become more extreme, or polarized, amongst those like themselves

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Groupthink

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An issue of intragroup behavior; the deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and judgement that results from in-group pressures

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Central Leader

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A variable mandatory for groupthink to occur; the person of power who can agree or disagree with the decision

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Gatekeeper

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A variable mandatory for groupthink to occur; someone who controls access to the gatekeeper and manipulates information

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Pluralistic Ignorance

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A variable mandatory for groupthink to occur; tendency to trust that other people know more than you do

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Self-censorship

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A variable mandatory for groupthink to occur; muting of one's own opinion under the assumption that others know better

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Pressure to uniformity

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A variable mandatory for groupthink to occur; the pressure for a ruling decision

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Contingency Model

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Models leadership in intragroup behavior; posits that there are two main types, socioemotional and task, and that their respective effectiveness depends on the overall morale level of the group

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Social Dilemma

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A larger intragroup issue; the conflict between wanting to maximize self-interest against the interest of the group as a whole

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Commons Dilemma

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A social dilemma in which the population must save natural resources, but selfish mindsets depletes the resource for other people

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Public Goods Dilemma

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A social dilemma in which the population must give to the resource in order for it to survive, but selfish mindsets take advantage of the resource without giving

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Conventional Wisdom (Social Rage)

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Dramatic events (assassinations, unpopular verdicts, etc.) crystallize social rage stemming from underlying root reasons like racism, poverty, etc. and why people who experience this rage manage it in a self destructive manner- breakdown of families, media influences, etc. There are these forces that cause people to be angry, and then there is another external push that sets them off.

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Convergent Norm

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a substantial enough number of like minded people who would favor mob behavior

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Emergent Norm

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once a riot begins, what constitutes acceptable behavior changes (ex: oftentimes people arrested have no criminal history; your own standard of good behavior changes in a riot, norm transforms)

Social Psychology Midterm 2

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