social psych Test Questions - Flashcards

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3 main areas of social psych

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influence cognition interaction

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social influence

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how we are influenced by others

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social cognition

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how we think about others

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social interaction

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how we interact with others

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social cognition

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mental processes people use to make sense of the world around them

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attitude

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tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a certain person, object, idea or situation

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three components of attitude

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1. the affective (emotional) component [i like country music] 2. behavioral component [ibuy country music cds] 3. cognitive component [country music is better than any other music]

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how do we form attitudes

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direct contact direct instruction interacting w/ other ppl vicarious conditioning

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direct contact [attitude]

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with people, situation or idea [i.e. eating veggies]

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direct instruction [attitude]

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from parents or others [i.e. being told smoking is bad]

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interacting with other people [attitude]

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who hold a certain attitude [i.e. peer group who like certain sports]

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vicarious conditioning

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watching actions and reactions of others to ideas, people, objects, siituations [see mom afraid of dog]

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attitude change: persuasion

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process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading or explanation

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key elements in persuasion

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source of message message itself target audience medium

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elaboration likelihood model

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ppl either elaborate on the message or fail to do it

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future actions of those who do elaborate more are _______

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more predictable than those who do mot

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cognitive dissonance

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sense of discomfort or distress that occurs when a person's behavior does not correspond to their attitude

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cognitive dissonance is lessened by

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changing conflicting behavior/attitude, forming new attitude to justify the behavior

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attributions

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process of inferring the causes of mental states, behaviors, and events which occur to ourselves and others

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external attributions

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behavior due to the siutation

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internal attributions

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behavior reflects the person

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fundamental attribution error

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tendency to attribute someone else's behavior to their person disposition and underestimate the effect of the situation

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impression formation

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forming of first knowledge a person has about another

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primacy effect

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first impression one has about a person tends to persist even in the face of evidence to the contrary

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social categorization

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assignment of a person one has just met to a category based on characteristics the new person has in common with other people with whom one has had experience in the past

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stereotype

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set of characteristics that ppl believe is shared by all members of a particular social category

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social interaction

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with others, positive or negative relationships between people

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three types of interaction

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aggression prosocial liking/loving prejudice discrimination

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aggression

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behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person

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fustration-agression hypothesis

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aggression is a reaction to fustration

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konrad lorenz saw aggression as an ____________

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instinct for fighting to promote the survival of our species

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biological influences on aggression may include genetics,

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the amygdala and limbic system, and testosterone and serotonin levels

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social role

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pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position

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altruism

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prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself

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prosocial behavior

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social desirable behavior that benefits others

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for altruism, _________ is larger in individuals who make altruistic choices

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temporoparietal junction

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bystander effect

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effect that the presence of other people has on the decision to help or not

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diffusion of responsibility

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person failz to take responsibility for an action or inaction because of the presence of other people who are seen to share the responsibility

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five steps in making a decision to help [diffusion of responsibility]

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noticing defining an emergency taking responsibility planning a course of action taking action

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which part of the brain are involved in various aspects of emotion?

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other subcortical and cortical areas (core affect network) -frontal lobes -anterior cingulate cortex -lateral orbitofrontal cortex

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common sense

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a stimulus leads to an emotion which then leads to bodily arousal (snarling dog, conscious fear,ans arousal)

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james-lange theory

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a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion (snarling dog, ans arousal, conscious fear)

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cannon-bard theory

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physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time (snarling dog, brain activity, ans arousal / conscious fear)

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cognitive arousal theory

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both physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced

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facial feedback hypothesis

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facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion

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cognitive mediational theory

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stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction

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emotional regulation

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modulation of one's emotional response when it is inappropriate, unwanted or excessive, so as to ensure goal relevant behavior

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we can regulate emotional responses using

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cognitive effort; reppraisal works but suppressing emotions does not

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three special methods used in developmental research

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-longitudinal design -cross-sectional design -cross-sequential design

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cross-sectional

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different participants of various ages studied at one time

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longitudinal

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same participants studied at multiple time points

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cross-sequential

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combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal [start cross-sectional with two groups and follow-up with longitudinal]

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nature

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influence of our inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

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nurture

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influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

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behavioral genetics focuses on

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nature vs nurture

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chromosome

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tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA

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gene

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section of DNA having a certain sequence or ordering of chemical elements

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behavioral genetics

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field investigating the relative contributions to development of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)

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development is a product of an interaction between __________

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nature and nurture

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polygenic inheritance

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combinations of genes working together

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dizygotic twins are formed when the motehr's body

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releases multiple eggs and at least two are fertilized, or when another ovulation occurs even though the mother was already preggers

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geminal period

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first two weeks of pregnancy in which the dividing mass of cells move into the uterus

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embryonic period

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begins at 2 weeks after conception and ends at 8 weeks; vital organs and structures of the baby form during this period (critical one when teratogens may adversely affect the developement of those things)

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fetal period

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beginning of 9th week to birth; tremendous growth, length and weight increase, and organ become fully functional

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four critical areas of adjustment for newborns

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respiration digestion circulation temperature regulation

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the senses except for _____ are fairly well-developed at birth

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vision; blurry and lacking in full color until 6 months of age

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gross and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during

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infancy and early childhood.`

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Piaget's stages include

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- sensorimotor stage - preoperational thought - concrete operations - formal operations

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sensorimotor stage

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of sensory and physical interactions with the world

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preoperational thought

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where language becomes a tool of exploration

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concrete operations

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logical thought becomes possible

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formal operations

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abstract concepts are understood and hypothetical thinking develops

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Vgostsky believed that children learn best when being

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helped by a more highly skilled peer/adult

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scaffolding

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when a child is taught by a person of higher skill

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zone of proximal developemnt

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difference between the mental age of tasks the child performs without help and those the child can perform with help

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stages of language development are

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cooing, babbling, one-word speech (holophrases), telegraphic speech, and whole sentences

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four types of attachment

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- secure - avoidant - ambivalent - disorganized-disoriented

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avoidant

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unattached; somewhat swlling to explore, seek little contact with their mother and react little by her return

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ambivalent

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insecurely attached; clinging and unwilling to explore, protest mightily when mother leaves but hard to sooth or fight back with mother when she returns

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disorganized-disoriented

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insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; undecided how they should react when mother returns

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secure

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willing to play and explore comfortably with their mother present, visibly upset when she leaves and quickly calmed by her return

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personal fable

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believe they are especially unique and protected from ham

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imaginary audience

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convinced that everyone is paying attention to them

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cellular clock theory

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based on the idea that cells have so many times that they can divide (telomeres) -division necessary for repair/replacement of tissue

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wear-and-tear theory

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repeated use and abuse of body's tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage

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free radical theory

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molecules with an unpaired electron, created as a by-product of various biological processes, damage cell structures

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attachment theory

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special bond formed with caregiver early in life; create working models (basis for all future relationships); can change based on life experiences; unconscious expectations

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trust vs mistrust

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0-1 years learn to trust/mistrust based on whether needs are met

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irrreversibility

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unable to "mentally reverse" actions

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centration

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tendency to focus on only on feature of some object rather then taking all of the features into consideration

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egocentric

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see world only from their pov

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climacteric

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physical decline in a woman's reproductive system

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andropause

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less dramatic change in testosterone and other male hormones, beginning in the 40s

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erikson's crisis of young adulthood is

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intimancy vs isolation

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crisis of middle adulthood

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generativity vs stagnation; where middle-aged adult help next generation through it's crisis (by parenting,mentoring, or leaving some sort of legacy)

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Baumrind proposed three parenting styles

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authoritarian, authoritative, permissive

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erikson's final crisis

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integrity vs despair; an older adult must come to terms with mortality

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free-radical theory

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states that oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go

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five stages of reaction to death and dying are

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denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance

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trust vs mistrust, the infant must gain a sense of

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predictability and trust in caregivers or risk developing a mistrustful nature

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autonomy vs shame and doubt

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toddler needs to become physically independent

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initiative vs guilt

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preschool child is developing emotional and psychological independence

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industry vs inferiority

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school-age children are gaining competence and developing self-esteem

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kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development

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- preconventional morality - conventional morality - postconventional morality

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Erikson's identity vs role confusion crisis

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job of adolescent is to achieve a consistent sense of self from among all the roles, values and futures open to them

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the thinking and attitudes of many who survived the Depression of the 1930s changed them for the rest of their lives. This is an example of

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cohort effect

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cohort effect

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particular impact of a group bonded by time or common life experience

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In _________ syndrome, the 23rd pair of chromosomes consists of an XXY pairing, resulting in reduced masculine characteristics and excessive height.

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Klinefelter's

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Which of the following represents the fertilization process for which monozygotic twins?

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One egg is fertilized by one sperm and then splits.

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What part of an infant's body is said to stay in an immature state until needed to produce more cells?

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stem cells

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Based on today's science and medicine, when does the age of viability begin?

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between 22-26 weeks

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Dr. Kahn measures how long baby Lydia looks at a particular stimulus. The technique is known as

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preferential looking

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At what are can the typical infant roll over?

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2 months

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Studies of the infant brain shows signs of what scientists call synaptic pruning. What occurs during this process?

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Unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared out to make way for new cells.

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In which of Piaget's stages does the child become capable of understanding conservation?

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concrete operations

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Monique says "milk" when she wants her her milk from the kitchen counter. Subsequently, she says "milk" after she has had a drink. Using a single phrase to mean different things is an example of

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holophrase

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In the Strange Situation, _________ babies would cry when their mother left the room but were happy upon her return.

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secure

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What is a new explanation as to why teenagers and young adults may engage in risky and dangerous behavior?

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Such behavior may be due to the incomplete development of the prefrontal cortex.

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Samantha enters a classroom where two students are talking. When they stop their discussion, Samantha is certain they must have been talking about her. Such a belief is an example of

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the imaginary audience.

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What cognitive changes occurring during middle adulthood are the most noticeable?

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Changes in memory begin to occur

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Independence and self-reliance in the teenage years is the most likely due to ______ parenting.

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authoritative

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The crisis of late adulthood, according to Erikson, is

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integrity vs despair

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Which theory of aging states that unstable oxygen molecules tend to steal electrons as they bounce around, thus causing damage to surrounding cells?

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free-radical theory

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Kip is worried that he is losing his mind because he finds himself angry at a friend who died in an automobile accident. Based on Kubler-Ross's research, what might you tell him?

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Anger is a normal reaction to death and not a sign of mental illness.

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Asch used a set of comparison lines and a standard line to experiment with conformity,

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finding that subjects conformed to group opinion about 1/3 of the time, increased as number of confederates rose to four, decreased if one confederate gave the correct answer

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cross-cultural research found that collectivistic cultures show

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more conformity than individualistic cultures

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gender differences do no occur in conformity unless

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the response is not private, in which women are more conforming than men

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groupthink

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occurs when a decision-making group feels that it is more important to maintain group unanimity and cohesiveness than to consider facts realistically

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minimizing groupthink involves

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holding group members responsible for the decisions made by the group

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group polarization occurs when members

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take somewhat more extreme positions and greater risks compared to those made by individuals

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when the performance of an individual on a relatively easy task is improved by the presence of others

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social failitation

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when performance of an individual on a relatively difficult task is negatively affected by the presence of others

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social impairment

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when a person who is lazy is able to work in a group of people, often performing less well than working alone

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social loafing

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deindividualism

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when group members feel anonymous and personally less responsible for their actions

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compliance

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when a person changes behavior as a result of another person asking or directing a change

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three common ways of getting compliance from others

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foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, low-ball

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people who join cults tend to be

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under stress, unhappy, unassertive, gullible, dependent, idealistic, want to belong

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young people are ______________ to join cults than older people

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more likely

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___________ use love-bombing, isolation, rituals, and activities to keep new recruits from questioning and critical thinking

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cults

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obedience

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changing one's behavior at the direct order of an authoritative figure

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milgram experiment

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found that 65% of people obeyed an authoritative figure even if they believed they were hurting/injuring/possibly killing another person with electric shock

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attitudes

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tendencies to respond positively or negatively toward ideas, persons, objects or situation

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three components of an attiude

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affective (emotional), behavior, cognitive

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cognitive dissonance is lessened by

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changing the conflicting behavior , changing conflicting attitude or forming new attitude to justify the behavior

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implicit personality theory

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form of social cognition in which a person has sets of assumptions about different types of people, personality traits, actions that are assumed to be related to each other

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schemas

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mental patterns that represent what a person believes about certain types of people (can be stereotypes)

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attribution

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process of explaining the behavior of others as well as one's own behavior

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situational cause

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an explanation of behavior based on factors in the surrounding environment or situation

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dispositional cause

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explanation of behavior based on the internal personality characteristics of the person being observed

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prejudice

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negative attitude that a person holds about the members of a particular social group

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discrimination

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occurs when members of a social group are treated differently because of prejudice toward that group

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in-groups

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people with whom a person identifies, whereas outgroups are everyone else at whom prejudice tends to be directed

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scapegoating

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refers to the tendency to direct prejudice and discrimination at out-group members who have little social power or influence

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social cognitive theory

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views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling and other social influences

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realistic conflict theory

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conflict between groups increases prejudice and discrimination

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social identity theory sees a person's formation of a social sense of self within a particular group as being due to three things

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social categorization, social identity, social comparison

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social catergorization

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may involve the use of reference groups

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social identity

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person's sense of belonging to a particular social group

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social comparison

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which people compare themselves to others to improve their own self-esteem

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stereotype vulnerability

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the effect that a person's knowledge of the stereotypes that exist against his or her social group can have on that person's behavior

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people who are aware of stereotypes may unintentionally come to behave in a way that

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makes the stereotype real in a self-fulfilling prophecy

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intergroup contact

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more effective in reducing prejudice if the groups have equal status

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prejudice and discrimination can be reduce when a superordinate goal that is large enough to override all other goals

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needs to be achieved by all groups

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prejudice and discrimination are reduced when people must (jigsaw classroom)

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work together to solve a problem because each person has an important key to solving problem, creating mutual interdependence

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interpersonal attraction

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refers to liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person

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reciprocity of liking

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people tend to like other people who like them in return

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sternberg states that the three components of love are

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intimacy, passion, commitment

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romantic love

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intimacy with passion

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companionate love

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intimacy with commitment

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consummate love

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contains all three components of love

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aggression is behavior intended to

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hurt or destroy another person in way that may be physical or verbal

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biological influences on aggression may include

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genetics, amygdala and limbic system, and testosterone and serotonin levels

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social roles

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powerful influences on the expression of aggression

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social learning theory

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aggression can be learned through direct reinforcement and through the imitation of successful aggression by a model

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prosocial behavior

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behavior that is socially desirable and benefit others

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latane and darley found that people who were alone were more likely to

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help in an emergency than people who were with others

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five steps in making a decision to help are

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noticing defining an mgenc taking responsibility planning action taking action

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social neuroscience

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study of how biological processes influence social behavior

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studies fMRI and other imaging techniques to

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discover areas of the brain involved in social actions

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Saul admits that he conforms so as to be liked by others. This is known as

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normative social influence

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Many businesses now require their employees to work in teams, believing that a group of four to five employees will accomplish more than four to five individuals working alone. This is an example of what concept?

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social facilitation

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Maria was approached by her neighbor asking her to adopt two to three kittens that were abandoned by their mother. While Maria refused to take in three kittens, she did agree to adopt one. what compliance technique did her neighbor use on Maria?

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door-in-the-face

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Follow-up studies to Stanley Milgram's research have suggested that a teacher's willingness to deliver potentially lethal shocks may be a product of _______ than of obedience.

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social identity

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The public service messages that encourage parents to sit down with their children and talk frankly about drugs are promoting which method of attitude formation?

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direct contact

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Sandy was a juror in the trial for a man accused of stealing guns from a sporting goods store. The defendant was not very well spoken and came from a very poor background, but Sandy listened carefully to the evidence presented and made her decision based on that. Sandy was using _______ processing.

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central-route

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Which of the following should LaShonda avoid if she wants to reduce cognitive dissonance?

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ignoring the conflict altogether

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Gerard goes to a job interview dressed in patched blue jeans, a torn T-shirt, and sandals. His hair is uncombed and he hasn't shaved in a few days. Obviously, Gerard knows nothing about about

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impression formation.

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If behavior is assumed to be caused by external characteristics, this is known as

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situational cause

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Thomas like to "hang with the guys." These people with whom Thomas identifies most strongly with are called a(n)

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in-group

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The "Robber's Cave" experiment showed value of ______ in combating prejudice.

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equal status contact

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Vivian and Steve met at work. At first they were just friends, but over time, they found themselves falling in love - or as Vivian tells her friends, "Steve just grew on me!" According to research in interpersonal attraction in interpersonal attraction, the most likely explanation for their attraction is

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mere exposure.

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According to Strenberg, a couple whose love is based off of intimacy and passion but who are are not committed to a long-term relationship are in the form of love called ______ love.

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romantic

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The concept that aggression results from a social role is based on what psychological theory?

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learning

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Cara knows that she can help people simply by dialing 9-1-1 on her cell phone if an emergency arises. Which step in the decision process for helping would Cara be at?

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planning a course of action

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Which of the following would the field of social neuroscience be most likely to study?

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what parts of the brain influence social behavior

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In Asch's study, conformity decreased when

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at least one confederate agreed with the participant.

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Which of the following would not be effective in minimizing groupthink?

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Caroline wants her team to openly vote by a show of hands either for or against her business plan.

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One of the keys to deindividuation is

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anonymity

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Conner needs just $20 more to go out with his friends. He asks his mother for $50 but she tells him he can have $30 instead. In the end, Conner ended with $10 more that he originally planned. What technique did Conner use?

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door-in-the-face technique

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Follow-up research to Stanley Milgram's original study has found that ______ of "teachers" will deliver shocks up to the point of being lethal.

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Over 60 percent

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Studies have found that attitudes are primarily the result of

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learned behavior.

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Which of the following represents the affective component of an attitude?

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"I love to go to clubs - it makes me so happy!"

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Erin hates snakes, even though she has never been bitten or been close to one. She developed her feelings by seeing how scared her mother was when she came across them in the garden, or even when watching a movie or television show were there was a snake. Erin's attitude toward snakes was most likely acquired through

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vicarious conditioning.

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As an attorney, you always recommend to your clients that they dress up in professional clothes for their day in court. What aspect of persuasion are you focusing upon?

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the source

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One of your friends tells you, "I didn't like the environmental-awareness presentation today. First of all it was too long not to mention the person that gave it was drinking out of a polystyrene cup and drove away in a huge SUV." What kind of processing might your friend be using?

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peripheral-route processing

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In the famous Festinger experiment, participants were paid either $1 or $20 to lie to a woman in the waiting room about how interesting a task really was. The participants who convinced themselves that the task was really fun were the ones who were

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paid only $1. Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance.

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If you were to describe impression formation in just one word, what word would that be?

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prediction

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According to the phenomenon known as social categorization, what is the most influential in helping us form an attitude about someone or something?

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Those things that happen first, also known as the primacy effect.

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Kohanna thinks that everyone who smiles must always be happy and those people who are quiet must be naturally shy. Such assumptions are the bases for

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implicit personality theory.

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Caleb almost always shows up late for work. His friends attribute to Caleb's laziness. This is an example of a ______ cause.

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dispositonal

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How might someone who unknowingly is committing the fundamental attribution error explain Stanley Milgram's obedience study?

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Subjects in that study must have been the kind of people that like to hurt others.

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Prejudice is about ______ while discrimination is about ______.

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attitudes; behavior

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Jewell and Amie became friends while taking an evening class at the local community college. Jewell was later horrified to find out that Amie was actually a teacher at the college. Subsequently, Jewell stopped talking with Amie, thus ending their friendship. What theory of prejudice and discrimination might this be an example of?

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in-group/out-group theory

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In teacher Jane Elliot's classic study, the most startling finding was the

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test scores dropped for each group during their respective turn as the out-group.

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Which of the following would be the most effective way to decrease prejudice?

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Creative an environment of equal status, where groups must rely upon each other to solve a common problem.

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The more you see someone, the more likely you are to like that person. Such a phenomenon is often due to

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mere exposure.

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What does the research say about the concept of opposites attract?

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Studies do not support this idea but instead offer the explanation of complementary qualities.

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In grade school, 12-year-old Chase does not know 12-year-old Corrine well, but starts to like her when he hears from her friends that she has a crush on him. This is an example of

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reciprocity of liking.

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According to Robert Sternberg's three components of love, which component addresses the physical aspects?

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PASSION

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According to Sternberg, when all three components of love are present, a couple possesses _________ love.

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cosummate

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When people are unable to reach a goal, frustration may result, which can ultimately turn into

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aggression

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Increased levels of aggression in those who drink alcohol may be due to a decrease in what neurotransmitter?

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serotonin

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Studies of the brain have found that the ______ is influential in the presence of ______ behavior.

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temporoparietal junction; altruistic

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Which of the following scenarios probably will not result in the bystander effect?

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You come across someone lying on a walking path while you are walking alone at your local nature center.

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Once a situation has been defined as an emergency, the next step in the decision-making process is

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taking responsibility

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motivation

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process by which activities are started, directed, and sustained so that physical and psychological needs are fulfilled

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instinct approaches

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propose that some human actions may be motivated by instincts, which are innate patterns of behavior found in both ppl and animals

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drive-reduction approaches

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state that when an organism has a need (such as hunger), the need leads to psychological tension that motivates the organism to act, fulfilling the need and reducing the tension

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primary drives

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involve needs of the body whereas acquired (secondary) drives are those learned through experience.

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homeostasis

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tendency of the body to maintain a steady state

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need for affiliation

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the desire to have friendly social interactions and relationships with others as well as the desire to be held in high regard by others

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need for power

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having control over others, influencing them, and having an impact on them; status and prestige is important

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need for achievement

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strong desire to succeed in achieving one's goals, both realistic and challenging

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self-theory of emotion

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links the need fo achievement to the concept of locus of control

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a belief in control over one's life

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leads to more attempts to achieve, even in the face of failure

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those who believe they have little control over their life

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more likely to develop learned helplessness

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arousal theory

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a person has an optimal level of arousal to maintain

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people who need more arousal more than others are called

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sensation seekers

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in the incentive approach

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an external stimulus may be so rewarding that it motivates a person to act toward that stimulus even in the absence of a drive

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maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs, beginning with

answer

basic physiological needs and ending with transcendence needs

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based on maslow's belief. more basic needs must be met before

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higher needs can be fulfilled.

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self-determination theory (SDT)

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model of motivation in which three basic needs are seen as necessary to an individual's successful development

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SDT three basic needs

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autonomy, competence, relatedness

question

intrinsic motivation

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occurs when people act because the act itself is satisfying or rewarding

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extrinsic motivation

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occurs when people receive an external reward like money for the act

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physiological components of hunger

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signals from stomach and hypothalamus, increases secretion of insulin

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when basal metabolic rate slows down

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the weight set point increases and makes weight gain more likely

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social components of hunger include

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social cues for when meals are to be eaten, cultural customs and food preferences, and use of food as a comfort device or escape from unpleasantness

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maladaptive eating may lead to

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obesity

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emotion

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feeling aspect of consciousness and includes physical, behavioral, and subjective (cognitive) elements

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amygdala

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plays a key role in emotional processing

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physical arousal

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tied to activation of sympathetic nervous system

question

James-Lange theory

answer

states that a stimulus creates a physiological response that then leads to the labeling of the emotion

question

cannon-bard theory

answer

asserts that the physiological reaction and the emotion are simultaneous, as the thalamus sends sensory information to both the cortex of the brain and the organs of the sympathetic nervous system

question

schachter and singer's cognitive arousal theory

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both physiological arousal and actual interpretation of that arousal must occur before the emotion itself is experienced; based on cues from environment

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facial feedback hypothesis

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facial expressions provide feedback to the brain about the emotion being expressed on the face, intensifying emotion

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cognitive-mediational theory of emotion

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cognitive component of emotion (interpretation) precedes both the physiological reaction and the emotion itself

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cohort effect is the particular impact on development that occurs when

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a group of people share a common time period or common life experience

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nature refers to heredity

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influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

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nurture refers to the influence

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of the environment on all of those same things and includes parenting styles, physical surroundings, economic factors, and anything that can have an influence on development not from the person

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behavioral genetics is a field in the investigation of the origins of behavior

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in which researchers try to determine how much of behavior is the result of genetic inheritance and how much is due to experience

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autosomes

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pairs of chromosomes

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most developmental psychologists agree that most likely explanation for most human development is based on

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the interaction between nature and nurture

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When sets of genes group together, the result can be multiple traits expressed as a single dominant trait. This is best explained by the process known as

answer

polygenetic inheritance.

question

zygote contains a total of ____ chromosomes

answer

46

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monozygotic twins

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two babies from one fertilized egg

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placenta and umbilical cord begins to form during

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germinal period

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germinal period is where cells begin to

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differentiate; develop specialized cells in the human body

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stem cells

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stay in somewhat immature state until needed to produce more cells

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stem cells can be used to

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grow new organs and tissues for transplant or repair neurological damage

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embryo

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developing orgnaism

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embryonic period last from

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2-8 weeks; organs and structures are developed

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critical periods

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times during which environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant

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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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series of physical and mental defects including stunted growth, facial deformities, brain damage

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fetal period, teratogens would most likely affect the

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physiology of the organs rather than structure

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when a miscarriage occurs, it is mot likely caused by a genetic defect in the way the embryo or fetus is developing that will not allow the infant to survive

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in other words, the mother did nothing wrong or could not have been able to prevent the miscarriage

question

fertilization, zygote, twinning

answer

fertilization to form zygote, 46 chromosomes zygote divides through mitosis until baby forms alterations in mitosis can result in twins, etc

question

germinal period (2- week period after fertilization)

answer

zygote continues dividing and move to uterus; cell differentiation results in specialized cells for various parts of body

question

embryonic period (2 weeks after conception to 8 weeks)

answer

once attached to uterus, embryo is formed cell specialization continues to develop bigger organs vulnerable to diseases and substances ingested by the mom as it receives nourishment through placenta

question

fetal period (8 weeks to birth)

answer

developing organisms now called a fetus; tremendous growth organs continue to develop and fully develop full-term birth occurs around end of 38 week miscarriages (spontaneous abortion) most likely occur in first 3 months

question

When do most miscarriages occur?

answer

first three months of pregnancy

question

preferential looking

answer

looking assumes the longer an infant spends looking at a stimulus, the more the infant prefers that stimulus over others

question

habituation

answer

tendency for infants (and adults) to stop paying attention to a stimulus that does not change

question

after birth, what happens?

answer

respiratory system begins to function, blood circulates bc umbilical cord was cut; body temp is regulated w/ body fact and activity (fat provides fuel until it can get food on its own; thats why they lose weight first week after birth)

question

reflexes

answer

innate (existing from birth), involuntary behavior patterns; help infant to survive

question

motor development: from crawling to a blur of motion

answer

infants manage a tremendous amount of development in motor skills from birth to 2 years old

question

synaptic pruning

answer

unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cells; necessary loss of neurons

question

by age 3, brain development

answer

rapid and extensive growth of neurons occur as the brain triple in weight; increased caused by growth of new dendrites, axon terminals, increase number of synaptic connections

question

sense of touch is most well developed

answer

for babies

question

taste is nearly fully developed

answer

at birth, infants show preference for tastes

question

hearing is functional before birth

answer

but may take a little while to reach its full potential after baby is born

question

vision is lease functional sense

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complex organ, the eye, will take another 6 months to fully develop relatively poor color perception when compared to sharply contrasting lights and darks until 2 months of age

question

infants' preference for seeing things in three D suggests that

answer

infants possess depth perception

question

cognitive development

answer

development in thinking, problem solving, memory

question

Piaget's theory: four stages of cognitive development

answer

sensorimotor preoperational concrete operations formal operations

question

children form mental concepts or _________ as they experience new situations and events

answer

schemes

question

sensorimotor (birth - 2 years)

answer

children explore the world with their senses and can move; develop object permanence and understand concepts and mental images which represent objects, people, and events

question

preoperational (2 to 7 years)

answer

young kids can mentailly represent and refer to objects/events with words/p[ictures and pretend. they cannot conserve, logically reason, or consider many characteristics of an object

question

concrete operations (7-12 years)

answer

children can conserve, reverse thinking, and classify objects in terms of their many characteristics. they can also think logically and understand analogies but only concrete events

question

formal operations (12 years +)

answer

can use abstract reasoning about hypothetical events, logical possibilities, test hypothesis, examine; not everyone can do this

question

accommodation

answer

process of altering or adjusting old schemes to fit new information and experiences

question

in ____________ stage, infants use their senses and motor abilities to learn about the wolrd around them

answer

sensorimotor

question

at first, infants only have __________________ present at birth to interact with objects and people

answer

involuntary reflexes

question

object permanence

answer

knowledge of an object exists even when it is not in sight; end of sensorimotor stage

question

egocentrism

answer

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes but one's own

question

animism

answer

anything that moves is alive

question

preoperational stage

answer

children can now ask questions; not capable of logical thought; use simple mental concepts;

question

centration (i.e. 2 small pieces of pie > than one big piece)

answer

focusing only on one feature of some opbject rather than taking all features into consideration

question

the ability to understand that altering the appearance of something does not change its substance

answer

conservation

question

irreversibility

answer

preoperational thinking fail at conservation not only because they centrate but because they are also unable to "mentally reverse" actions

question

concrete operations stage

answer

children are finally become capable of conservation and reversible thinking ; can ask logical questions

question

major limitation of concrete operations

answer

inability to deal effectively with abstract concepts

question

abstract concepts

answer

those that do not have physical, concrete, touchable reality

question

concrete concepts

answer

kind of concepts understood by children of 7-12 (concrete operations) about objexts, written rules and real things; children need to see it, touch it, or in their head to understand

question

formal operations (12+)

answer

abstract thinking is possible; thinking of possibilities/impossibilities, hypothetical thinking

question

adults who don't achieve formal operations tend to

answer

use more practical, down-to-earth kind of intelligence that suits their lifestyle

question

college students need formal-operational thinking to succeed in their careers bc

answer

most colleges require critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and abstract thinking

question

Vygotsky's theory: importance of being there

answer

importance of the role of social and cultural interactions with children, typically those highly-skilled

question

child-directed speech

answer

the way adults and older children talk to infants and young children

question

cooing

answer

at around 2 months of age, babies begin to make vowel-like sounds

question

babbling

answer

about 6 months, infants add consonant sounds to vowels to make a babbling sound, cn sound like real speech. deaf kids decrease babble after 6 months and increase use of hand signs/gestures

question

one-word speech

answer

holophrases; one year age; real words, normally nouns that represent phrase or meaning

question

telegraphic speech

answer

over a year age, toddlers string words together to form short and simple sentences

question

One way researchers study newborn development involves measuring how long infants continue to focus upon a nonchanging stimulus. This technique is referred to as

answer

habituation

question

temperament

answer

behavioral and emotional characteristics that are fairly well-established at birth

question

attachment

answer

emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver

question

extremely important development in the social and emotional life of the infant, usually forming within the first 6 months

answer

attachment

question

stranger anxiety

answer

wariness of strangers

question

separation anxiety

answer

fear of being separated from the caregiver

question

self-concept

answer

image you have of yourself and it's based on your interactions with important people in your life

question

1. trust vs mistrust (infant; birth to 1)

answer

infants learn basic sense of trust dependent upon how their needs are met

question

2. autonomy vs shame and doubt (toddler; 1-3 years old)

answer

successful in controlling their own actions develop independence

question

3. Initiative vs guilt (preschool age; 3-5 years old)

answer

learn to take responsibility for their own behavior as they develop self-control

question

4. industry vs inferiority (elem school; 5-12 years old)

answer

must learn new skills in both academic and social world; compare themselves to others to measure their success/failure

question

5. identity vs role confusion (adolescence; 13-20s)

answer

must decide who they are, what they believe, what they want to be as an adult

question

6. intimacy vs isolation (early adulthood; 20-30s)

answer

face the task of finding someone they can share their identity in an ongoing, close personal relationship

question

7. generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood; 40-50s)

answer

find a way to be creative; productive person who is nurturing the next generation

question

8. ego integrity vs despair (late adulthood; 60s+)

answer

coming to terms with the end of life; reaching a sense of wholeness and acceptance of life as it has been

question

psychosocial development

answer

involves development of personality, relationships, and a sense of being male/female; process begins in infancy and continues into adulthood

question

adolesscence

answer

period of life from about age 13-20, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but not yet an independent adult

question

puberty

answer

physical changes in both primary sex characteristics (sex organs) and secondary sex characteristics (boobs and body hair)

question

pituitary gland

answer

master gland, when proper genetically determined age is reached; complex series of glandular activities

question

prefontal cortex of the brain

answer

responsible for impulse control, decision making, and organization and understanding of information, does not stabilize in its development until we are in our 30s

question

personal fable

answer

adolescents have spent so much time thinking about their own thoughts and feelings, they are convinced they are special, one of a kind, no one else held these thoughts and feelings before

question

imaginary audience

answer

extreme self-consciousness

question

preconventional morality (very young kids)

answer

morality of an action is based on consequences; actions that get rewarded are right and those that earn punishment are wrong

question

conventional morality (older kids, adolescents, most adults)

answer

an action is morally right if it conforms to the rules of the society and wrong if it does not

question

postconventional morality (1/5 of adult)

answer

morality is now determined by experiences and judgement of the person, even if that judgement disagrees with society's rules

question

Changes in the body of young boys such as the appearance and growth of body hair is considered

answer

a secondary sex characteristic.

question

activity theory

answer

when an elderly person adjusts more positively to aging when remaining in some way

question

The structures on the ends of chromosomes that shorten each time a cell reproduces are called

answer

telomeres.

question

cellular-clock theory

answer

cells are limited in the number of times they can reproduce to repair damage; telomeres shorten each time a cell reproduces

question

wear-and-tear theory of aging

answer

body's organs and cell tissues simply wear out with repeated use and abuse

question

According to research, the reason many older people are no longer involved in their community is because

answer

they are not asked to take part.

question

What stage might terminally ill patients be in if they refuse to write a last will and testament because they believe that in doing so, they are admitting they will die?

answer

denial

question

need

answer

a requirement of some material that is essential for survival of the organism

question

drive-reduction theory

answer

proposed just this connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior

question

acquired (secondary) drives

answer

learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval

question

self

answer

beliefs a person holds about his or her own abilities and relationships with others

question

internal locus of control

answer

people who assume they have control over what happens in their life are considered internal in locus of control

question

external locus of control

answer

people who feel their lives are controlled by powerful others, luck or fate

question

Which theory of aging is compared to the limited number of repairs you can have before your car's warranty runs out?

answer

cellular clock theory

question

People high in the need for __________ want to be liked by others and are good team players.

answer

affiliation

question

stimulus motive

answer

one that appears unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation

question

three needs of SDT

answer

autonomy competence relatedness

question

autonomy

answer

need to be in control of one's own behavior and goals

question

competence

answer

need to be able to master the challenging tasks's of one's life

question

relatedness

answer

need to feel a sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others

question

happy feelings are associated for which part of the brain

answer

left frontal lobe

question

negative feelings are associated at which part of the brain

answer

right frontal lobe

question

display rules

answer

learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings

question

James-Lange theory of emotion

answer

a stimulus of some sort produces a physiological reaction ("I am nervous b/c my stomach flutters"); a stimulus and then a response which is interpreted as an emotion

question

cannon-bard theory of emotion

answer

sensory info that comes from the brain is sent simultaneously by the thalamus to both cortex and organs of the sympathetic nervous system. fear and bodily reactions occur at the same time; not one after another

question

cognitive arousal theory (two-factor theory)

answer

two things have to happen before emotion occurs: physical arousal and labeling of the arousal based on cues from surrounding environment; the two happen at the same time, resulting in the labeling of the emotion

question

example of cognitive arousal theory

answer

snarling dog, label of fear and arousal in body simultaneously

question

cognitive-mediational theory

answer

most important aspect of any emotional experience is how the person interprets the stimulus that causes the emotional reaction

question

in the cognitive mediational theory, cognitive appraisal ...

answer

mediates by coming between the stimulus and the emotional response to that stimulus.

question

example of cognitive mediational theory

answer

snarling dog, not confined in cage so therefore it is dangerous, interpreted response as "fear", thus arousal of emotion

question

common sense theory

answer

snarling dog, conscious fear, body arousal of fear

question

facial feedback theory

answer

arousal on face, interpreting facial expression, stimulates fear

question

physiological arousal is created by the

answer

sympathetic nervous system and is associated with brain activity in specific areas (i.e. amygdala) and right/left hemisphere activity

question

In Maslow's theory, how often do people reach a point of self-actualization?

answer

not often

question

In Ryan and Deci's self-determination theory, what is the key to achieving one's needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness?

answer

support of others

question

labeling process

answer

retrieving memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion and coming up with a solution; label is applied to a subjective feeling from learned response which is influenced by their language and culture

question

review motivation

answer

james-lange

question

james-lange

answer

snarling dog, body arousal, fear stimulus produce a body reaction which leads to labeling of emotion

question

cannon-bard

answer

snarling dog, stimulus to brain, fear and body arousal sensory information comes into the brain; simultaneously (by thalamus) to both the cortex and organs of the sympathetic nervous system; fear and body reaction are at the same time

question

cognitive mediational

answer

interpreting a stimulus as fear before feeling body arousal after seeing snarling dog

question

weight set point

answer

weight that the body tries to maintain; hypothalamus

question

hunger and eating behaviors are influenced by

answer

social cues and convention (i.e. eating at certain times), culture, and gender

question

emotion is characterize by three elements

answer

physical arousal, certain behavior that reveals feeling outside, inner awareness of the feeling

question

schachter and singer (cognitive arousal theory)

answer

two things must happen before emotion occurs: stimulus of snarling dog, thought of fear and body reaction, and then fear emotion

question

Lazarus's cognitive-mediational theory

answer

appraisal of threat, fear, body reaction

question

common sense theory "I'm shaking because I'm afraid"

answer

snarling dog, conscious fear , ans arousal

question

james-lange theory (I'm afraid because I'm shaking)

answer

snarling dog, ans arousal change in body, conscious fear

question

cannon-bard theory (i'm shaking and feeling afraid at the same time)

answer

snarling dog, subcortical brain activity, ans arousal changes in body + conscious fear

question

schachter-singer cognitive arousal theory (this snarling dog is dangerous and that makes me feel afraid)

answer

snarling dog, cognitive appraisal + ans arousal changes in body, conscious fear

question

facial feedback theory example

answer

ans arousal in face, facial expression, cognitive interpretation of face motions, fear

question

lazarus's cognitive-mediational theory example

answer

appraisal of threat, fear, body response

question

The phrase, "I'm embarrassed because my face is red" is best explained by which theory of emotion?x

answer

James-Lange

question

conformity

answer

changing one's own behavior to more closely match the actions of others

question

normative social influence

answer

the need to act in ways that we feel will let us be liked and accepted by others

question

informational social influence

answer

cues of how to behave from other people when we are in a situation that is not clear or is ambiguous; behavior of other people provides info on how we should act and we conform to their actions

question

example of group think

answer

sinking of the titanic; the idea that the ship is unsinkable and so people do not consider including enough lifeboats on board for all passengers

question

symptoms of groupthink

answer

members may feel that the group can do no wrong, morally correct, and will always succeed (creating a sense of invulnerability)

question

groupthink: members exert pressure on individual members to

answer

conform opinion, prevent those who may disagree from speaking up, and even censor themselves so that the group's mindset will not be disturbed

question

characteristics of groupthink

answer

invulnerability rationalization lack of introspection stereotyping pressure lack of disagreement self-deception insularity

question

invulnerability (group think)

answer

members feel they cannot fail

question

rationalization (group think)

answer

members explain away warning signs and help each other rationalize their decision

question

group members in a groupthink tend to hold stereotyped views of those who oppose the group

answer

causing members to think those who disagree have opinions not worthwhile

question

lack of introspection (groupthink)

answer

members do no examine the ethical implications of their decision because they believe that they cannot make immoral choices

question

stereotyping (groupthink)

answer

members stereotype their enemies as weak, stupid, unreasonable

question

pressure (groupthink)

answer

members pressure each other not to question the prevailing opinion

question

lack of disagreement (groupthink)

answer

members do not express opinions that differ from the group consensus

question

self-deception (groupthink)

answer

members share in the illusion that they all agree with the decision

question

insularity (groupthink)

answer

members prevent the group from hearing disruptive but potentially useful info from people outside the group

question

lowball technique

answer

once commitment is made, cost of that commitment is increased (could mean time, effort, money, etc)

question

example of lowball technique

answer

buying a car at a lowprice, but then there are extended warranties, additional options, taxes and fees, etc

question

ABC model of attitudes

answer

affective, behavior, cognitive

question

central-route processing

answer

people attend to the content of the message

question

peripheral-route processing

answer

style of information processing that relies on peripheral cues (outside the message itself); such as expertise of message source, length of message, and other factors unrelated to message

question

implicit personality theory are sets of

answer

assumptions that people have about how different types of people, personality traits, and actions are all related and form in childhood

question

schemas

answer

mental patterns that represent what a person believes about certain "types" of people

question

actor-observer bias

answer

people tend to explain the actions of others based on what "kind" of person they are rather than looking for outside causes (social influences or situations)

question

stereotype vulnerability

answer

effect that a person's knowledge of another stereotyped opinions can have on that person's behavior

question

social identity theory

answer

three processes are responsible for the formation of a person's identity within a social group -- categorization, identification and comparison

question

social learning theory

answer

states that aggressive behavior is learned in a process called observational learning

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