Social Infrastructure Essay Example

perhaps, it is the anthropocentric "reason" for the structure. According to one sociological perspective, infrastructure may be revealed by examining the direct interpersonal engagements that take place within canonical (typical) settings or situations, through the hermeneutic of sociobiology. 1. Social Work Workers are concerned with social problems, their causes, their solutions and their human impacts.Social workers work with individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities, as members of a profession which is committed to social justice and human rights.

Their approach is to consider the whole individual (including their biological, psychological, sociological, familial, cultural, and spiritual subsystems) within the context of their current situation. Social Work is the profession committed to the pursuit of social justice, to the enhancement of the quality of life, and to the development of the full potential of each individual, group and community in society.

Origins

The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions.

However, the practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern (19th century) and scientific origin. Charity in Europe was considered to be a responsibility and a sign of one’s piety. This charity was, generally, in the form of direct relief (i. e.money, food, etc. ). After the end of feudalism, a need arose to have an organized system to care for the poor. In England, the Poor Law served this purpose.This system of laws sorted the poor and developed different remedies for these different groups.

The 19th century ushered in the Industrial Revolution. There was a great leap in technological and scientific achievement, but there was also a great migration to urban areas.

This led to many social problems, which in turn led to an increase in social activism. Also with the dawn of the 19th century came a great “missionary” push from many Protestant denominations. Some of the mission efforts (urban missions), attempted to resolve the problems (poverty, prostitution, disease, etc. ) inherent in large cities.

These “friendly visitors”, stipended by church and other charitable bodies, worked through direct relief, prayer, and evangelism to alleviate these problems. In Europe, chaplains or almoners were appointed to administrate the church’s mission to the poor. During this time, rescue societies were initiated to find more appropriate means of self-support for women involved in prostitution. Mental asylums grew to assist in taking care of the mentally ill. A new philosophy of "scientific charity" which stated charity should be "secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, and dogmatic.

(James Leiby) In the late 1880s, a new system to provide aid for social ills popped up, that would become known as the settlement movement. The settlement movement focused on the causes of poverty. They did this through the three "R's" - Research, Reform, and Residence. They provided a variety of services including educational, legal, and health services.

These programs also advocated changes in social policy. Workers in the settlement movement immersed themselves in the culture of those they were helping. In America, this led to a fundamental question – is social work a profession?This debate can be traced back to the early 20th century debate between Mary Richmond's Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane Addams's Settlement House Movement. The essence of this debate was whether the problem should be approached from COS’ traditional, scientific

method focused on efficiency and prevention or the Settlement House Movement’s immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client.

Schools of social work and formalized processes began to spring up. However, the question lingered. In 1915, at the National Conference of Charities and Corrections, Dr.Abraham Flexner spoke on the topic "Is Social Work a Profession? " He contended that it was not because it lacked specialized knowledge and specific application of theoretical and intellectual knowledge to solve human and social problems. This led to the professionalization of social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method.

Qualifications for social work Lay practitioners, often referred to as SSA (Social Services Assistant) or Care Managers are unqualified and unregistered social workers. They are not professionally registered and often do not hold any formal social work qualification.Within the mental health sector, unqualified social workers (Social Service Assistants / Care Managers) are called Care coordinators.

In a number of countries and jurisdictions where registration of people working as social workers is required there are mandated qualifications. In other places, the professional association sets academic and experiential requirements for admission to membership. The success of these professional bodies' effort to establish these requirements is demonstrated in the fact that these same requirements are recognised by many employers as necessary for employment. .

Role of the professional social worker Professional social workers have a strong tradition of working for social justice and of refusing to recreate unequal social structures. The main tasks of professional social workers include case management (linking clients with agencies and programs that will meet their psychosocial needs), medical social work, counseling (psychotherapy), human services management, social welfare

policy analysis, community organizing, advocacy, teaching (in schools of social work), and social science research.

Professional social workers work in a variety of settings, including: non-profit or public social service agencies, grassroots advocacy organizations, hospitals, hospices, community health agencies, schools, faith-based organizations, and even the military. Some social workers work as psychotherapists, counselors, or mental health practitioners, normally working in coordination with psychiatrists, psychologists, or other medical professionals. Additionally, some social workers have chosen to focus their efforts on social policy or academic research into the practice or ethics of social work.

The emphasis has varied among these task areas by historical era and country. Some of these areas have been the subject of controversy as to whether they are properly part of social work's mission. A variety of settings employ social workers, including governmental departments (especially in the areas of child and family welfare, mental health, correctional services, and education departments), hospitals, non-government welfare agencies and private practice - working independently as counsellors, family therapists or researchers.

Professional social work associations

There is a International Regulatory body for professional social workers, which is called International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and International Association of Schools of Social Work. In the Country level, there are organizations regulating the profession. USA - National Association of Social Workers, UK - British Association of Social Workers, India - Professional Social Workers' Association, Association for the Advancement of Social Work with Groups.

Social work knowledge building

The history of social work is a history plagued by a fundamental question – is social work a profession?This debate can be traced back to the early 20th century debate between Mary Richmond's Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane

Addams's Settlement House Movement.

The essence of this debate was whether the problem should be approached from COS’ traditional, scientific method focused on efficiency and prevention or the Settlement House Movement’s immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client. The impetus for both movements was the glaring reality of social problems and the question over how to best attack them.This debate is arguably the earliest example of a larger debate within social work – how is knowledge acquired? This debate pits positivism against post-positivism in the pursuit of achieving respect as a profession. The current state of social work knowledge building is characterized by two realities. There is a great deal of traditional research, both qualitative and quantitative being carried out, primarily by university-based researchers, but also in different fields, by researchers based in institutes, foundations, or social service agencies. Meanwhile, the majority of social work practitioners continue to look elsewhere for knowledge.

This is a state of affairs that has persisted since the outset of the profession in the first decade of the twentieth century. One reason for the practice-research gap is that practitioners deal with situations that are unique and idiosyncratic, while research deals with regularities and aggregates. The translation between the two is often imperfect. A hopeful development for bridging this gap is the compilation in many practice fields of collections of "best practices," largely taken from research findings, but also distilled from the experience of respected practitioners.

Education in Kazakhstan Following independence from the Soviet Union a major economic depression cut "public financing" for education in Kazakhstan, "which dropped from 6% of gross domestic product in 1991 to about 3% in

1994, before rising to 4% in 1999. " Elementary- and secondary-school teachers remain badly underpaid; in 1993 more than 30,000 teachers (or about one-seventh of the 1990 teaching staff) left education, many of them to seek more lucrative employment. In 1994 Kazakstan had 8,575 elementary and secondary schools (grades one through twelve) attended by approximately 3.million students, and 244 specialized secondary schools with about 222,000 students. In 1992 about 51 percent of eligible children were attending some 8,500 preschools in Kazakstan. In 1994 some 272,100 students were enrolled in the republic's sixty-one institutes of higher learning. Fifty-four percent of the students were Kazakh, and 31 percent were Russian. Kazakhstan's 1995 constitution provides mandatory, socialized secondary school education.

Citizens compete for socialized institutions of higher learning.Private education is increasing in the country, with about 5% of students enrolled in the private schools that remain largely under arbitrary state control. In 2000, the Government of Kazakhstan joined the governments of the Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan, and His Highness the Aga Khan to establish the world’s first internationally chartered institution of higher education, the University of Central Asia (UCA). The UCA will have three campuses of equal size and stature in each of the founding countries. TheKazakh campus is under construction in Tekeli in the Zhedysu region, 35 minutes east of the regional capital Taldykorgan, and three hours by car from Almaty.

The UCA will benefit from the resources of the Aga Khan Development Network to offer an internationally recognized standard of higher education in Central Asia. Currently, the University operates a School of Professional and Continuing Education (SPCE), with a School of Undergraduate Studies and a Graduate School of

Development in the process of being established. In 2003 Asian Development Bank appropriated $600,000 in technical assistance in a grant to help education in Kazakhstan.The United States provided 137 Peace Corps members to "work in education and NGO development" in 2004. Kazakhstan has a 99.1% literacy rate for males and 97. 7% for females as of 1999. When United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Kazakhstan from 12-13 October 2006, she said "The future of any state depends on its level of education. This is my fourth visit to Kazakhstan, I have already been to Atyrau and Almaty and I have been able to see for myself the high level of education of your nation, which is a key to success of any country. " 2. 1.

Public Funding of EducationStudents who have not received general upper secondary education, have the academic portion of their program financed by the state. As for the vocational track, some students pay fees and others are financed through the state order program, where state authorities request a certain number of trained workers and specialists in certain fields. These students are chosen through a merit-based competition, based on grades and recommendations from teachers or public officials. Education for the nation as a whole made up •14. 4% of public expenditures in 1999

• 12. 1% in 2000
• 11.9% in 2001
• 12. 6% in 2002

f which the lions share went to general education: Level/type of education19992000200120022003

• Average Pre-school education 3. 13. 73. 23.33. 03. 3
• General education 68. 473.765. 268. 766. 268. 4
• Primary vocational education 3. 23.32. 93. 33. 63. 2
• Secondary vocational education 3. 53. 32. 52. 52. 32. 8

Projects and Programs Bolashak

The Bolashak Scholarship of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, was created in 1993 by the decree of the President: “In Kazakhstan’s transition toward a market economy and the expansion of international contacts, there is an acute need for a workforce with advanced western education, and so, it is now necessary to send the most qualified youth to study in leading educational institutions in foreign countries”.The Scholarship is merit-based and the selection process includes not only academic credentials, but also competence in the language of study, psychological testing and an interview process. Commitment to development of Kazakhstan and patriotism are factors as well. The final decision is made by the Republican Commission, chaired by the State Secretary and composed of the Ministers, members of Parliament, and members of the Office of the President.

The Republican Commission also approves the country of study and program of study.The Scholarship requires that all recipients return to Kazakhstan after graduating and work for five years in Kazakhstan. The Scholarship pays for all costs related to education, including tuition and fees, costs of travel, and a living stipend. Scholars are expected to maintain academic excellence. In the US, this translates to a 3. 0 GPA.

There are currently about 1,800 scholarship recipients studying abroad in 24 countries. About 1,700 were awarded the Scholarship in 2005.The most popular countries are the USA (about

700 students chosen in 2005), the UK (about 400 students chosen last year) and Russia (about 300 students chosen in 2005). Australia and Malaysia are two countries represented for the first time in 2005 and host 2 Bolashak Scholars each. Transfering to a Credit System The government is currently pursuing a program to adopt a credit-system which would allow students to study more easily internationally, and to add the possibility of a curriculum with electives and student-chosen courses.

ProblemsIn connection with a lack of school facilities or a lack of teachers, some primary and secondary schools run three, instead of two sessions, so one group of students attends from 8 to 1pm, a second from 1pm to 5, and a third session from 5pm to 10pm. This results in overworked teachers, students who are kept up late, and overused facilities.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) published a report on financing of public education in Kazakhstan in 2004, which mentions widely-agreed upon criticisms of the public education system reported elsewhere.According to this report, financing of public education is low, and mechanisms to introduce private financing have been unsuccessful. Furthermore, the Budget Code and the law 'On education' fail to clearly delineate responsibilities of local and central government, nor do they include sufficient mechanisms for monitoring budget expenditures.

Social Projects

Business companies in Kazakhstan are involved in social development of country too. Here are some examples.

Karachaganak Petroleum Operating Company’s Social Projects KPO contributes to the development of community where it operates both through its operations and social investments.

According to the Final Production Sharing Agreement (FPSA) signed with the Republic of Kazakhstan, KPO invests annually $10 million towards social infrastructure projects in

the Western Kazakhstan Oblast (WKO). The selection process is steered by the WKO Authority and considers real needs of the local community. Proactive involvement and stewardship of local administration ensure that the projects meet the real needs of the community.Many communities are already seeing the benefits of new schools and hospitals, better water supplies and supported cultural projects.

Social Projects – 2007

• Construction of kindergarten for 280 seats in microdistrict of Uralsk
• Reconstruction of Mukhit street in Uralsk
• Overhaul of therapeutic department #4 of the WKO Hospital in Uralsk
• Overhaul of Youth Sport School # 4 in Uralsk town (continuation)
• Conclusion of overhaul of a Surgical block, build. #12
• Projects in Burlin District Social Projects – 2006
• Refurbishment of Youth Sport school #4 stadium in Uralsk
• Refurbishment of Surgical block, build. 12 of WKO hospital
• Improvement of Aitiyeva and Narimanov streets in Uralsk
• Improvement of gas pipeline Ashesai-Chingirlau
• Refurbishement of water supply at the Uralsk Heat plant
• Refurbishement of kindergarten in Pugachev village 3. 2.

Yerzhan Tatishev’s Foundation’s Social Projects This is non-governmental, non-profit organization which tries to help to people of Kazakhstan by fixing schools (Kentau), giving scholarships for students to study in TOP universities of Kazakhstan (UIB, KIMEP, KBTU), restoring old movies of “Kazakhfilm” etc. 4. Health Care SystemA health care system is the organization and the method by which health care is provided. In practice, these systems vary widely from one country to another, and not all health care is delivered by way of a health care system. Comparing systems is the focus of health care politics and current research, but generally systems are compared by how they are financed and how they are

managed.

Financing

There are generally five primary methods of funding health care systems:

1. direct or out-of-pocket payments,
2. general taxation,
3. social health insurance,
4. voluntary or private health insurance, and
5. donations or community health insurance.

Although some view health care from an economic perspective as being no different from other products or services, others believe it has many characteristics that encourage government intervention or regulation:

1. The provision of critical health care treatment is often regarded as a basic human right, regardless of whether the individual has the means to pay—some treatments cost more than a typical family's life savings.
2. Health care professionals are bound by law and their oaths of service to provide lifesaving treatment.

People often lack the information or understanding to be able to choose rationally between competing health care providers when they need treatment, particularly in the event of the need of urgent or emergency treatment.

Health Care System in Kazakhstan

Under restructuring of the health care system, roughly half of Kazakhstan's hospitals, mainly facilities in rural areas, were closed between 1990 and 1997 and the number of acute-care hospital beds was decreased by 44%.

• As of 1999, the rural health care network, which had deteriorated due to lack of funds, was in the midst of reorganization.
• As of 1999, there were an estimated3. 5 physicians and 8. 5 hospital beds per 1,000 people.
• As of 1999 total health care expenditure was estimated at 5. 5% of GDP.

The average life expectancy in 2000 was 65 years. The total fertility rate was two children per woman during her childbearing years, and the infant mortality rate was 21 per 1,000 live births. For every 100,000 live births, 70 women

died during pregnancy or in childbirth in 1998. More than half of married women ages 15–49 (66%) used some form of contraceptive as of 2000. The crude birth rate as of 2002 was estimated at 17. per 1,000 inhabitants.

Major causes of death per 100,000 people in 1990 were communicable diseases and maternal/perinatal causes, 86; noncommunicable diseases, 700; and injuries, 103. There were 130 reported cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people in 1999. In 1990–94, immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 87%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 80%; polio, 75%; and measles, 72%. As of 1999, figures for DPT and measles were, respectively, 98% and 99%. A majority (67%) of children under five suffer from some form of anemia (1995).As of 1999, the number of people living with HIV/AIDS was estimated at 2,500 and deaths from AIDS that year were estimated at fewer than 100.

HIV prevalence was 0. 04 per 100 adults. Major environmental health concerns include industrial pollution in the east, the former nuclear facilities in the Semipalatinsk region, and ecological threats in the Aral Sea region. Conclusion I think that social infrastructure is strong.

But like anything in our world it is not perfect and it’s still needed the improvement in some parts.I hope that government of Kazakhstan will pay more attention to developing the education and health care systems because a lot of people can’t get the qualitative help in hospitals and the universities are still don’t have an international level. In the future Kazakhstan wants to be in TOP-50, but to be in that list we’ll have to work a lot, and, first of all, we need to work

on our social infrastructure because it’s the main component of country’s success.

The List of Used Literature

1. www. arc.
2. govt. nz/arc/index. cfm
3. www. wikipedia.org  http://www. kpo. kz/cgi-bin/index. cgi/36
4. www.aaswg. org