SOC 331: Midterm ch 1-7 – Flashcards
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The most critical way in which a person can contribute to his or her development is through ____.
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creating significant social relationships.
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The life span approach strives to identify _______.
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patterns of transition and transformation from one period of life to another _______.
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Which statement is an assumption of the Newman and Newman text?
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Behavior must be interpreted in the context of settings and relationships.
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In the context of human development, the term plasticity refers to _____.
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an adaptive re-organization during the life span
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Individuals' lives show ____ and _____ as they progress through time.
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continuity; change
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Michael believes that he can influence his personal development by making certain choices and being motivated to succeed. Michael's belief best illustrates which of the following assumptions of the Newman and Newman text?
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People contribute actively to their development
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What are the three major systems that interact to produce human experience?
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Biological, psychological, and societal systems
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According to Erik Erikson, human life is produced by _____.
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the interaction of biological, psychological, and societal systems.
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The _____ system provides the resources for processing information and navigating reality.
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Psychological
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Which system is most influenced by changes in self-regulation and self-awareness?
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Psychological
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The concept of identity best illustrates the relationship between the psychological system and the _____ system.
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Societal
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The influence of culture in one's lifespan is considered to be a component of which of the following systems?
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Societal
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In the U.S., 16-year olds expect to obtain a driver's license. What concept is best illustrated here?
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Age-graded societal expectations
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In terms of human development, poverty is considered _____.
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a major obstacle to optimal development
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Dale is 12 years old and is being raised by a single mother who recently lost her job. Dale and his mom are now homeless and experiencing poverty for the first time. Chip is 6 years old. He is being raised by an unemployed single father. Chip and his father have been living in poverty since Chip's birth. According to research on poverty, who is more at risk for negative consequences pertaining to health, cognitive development, and school achievement?
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Chip only
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Jo Ellen's divorce was final yesterday afternoon. Based on research, she and her two children can expect which of the following in terms of their financial well-being?
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A decrease in household income
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Earlier exposure to health risks, higher exposure to environmental hazards, and challenges in achieving developmental tasks are factors that are most often associated with ______.
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African American, Hispanic, and Asian American families who experience poverty
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There is a(n) _____ risk of prenatal exposure to environmental toxins in low-income families.
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higher
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The psychosocial approach seeks to understand the internal experiences that are ______.
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products of interactions among biological, psychological, and societal systems
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Which statement most accurately describes projections of life expectancy?
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Women outlive men worldwide
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People can live longer and healthier lives by ______.
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exercising 20-30 minutes daily.
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How is the study of life span human development related to life expectancy?
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Life expectancy provides a framework for timing about stages and periods of life.
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T or F: Self-insight is considered a vital component of mental health.
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True
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T or F: All cultures support physical growth and health in similar ways.
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False
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T or F: Psychological change is partly guided by genetic information.
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True
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Discuss why poverty is a risk factor for development by considering biopsychosocial aspects.
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Poverty increases the risks that indivuals face, including risks associated with malnutrition, poor quality health care, living in poor quality and overcrowded housing, living in a hazardous or dangerous neighborhood, and attending ineffective schools. Poverty is linked with reduced access to basic resources associated with health and survival. Exposure to these risk factors early and continuously throughout childhood is associated with higher incidences of health problems, greater challenges in achieving the developmental tasks of each life stage, disruptions in family and work trajectories, and reduced life expectancy. People strive to reduce tension of new demands of society by coping strategies. Those in poverty often use negative resolutions such as defensiveness, rigidity, withdrawal, which decreases a person's ability for successful social adaptations in succeeding stages.
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Which of the following statements is considered a characteristic of a "good" formal theory?
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It is logical and internally consistent.
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Which of the following statements best describes how theories help explain observations?
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They identify orderly relationships
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Human development theories are needed to _____.
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help explain behavior at different levels of analysis
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Evolutionary theory places the study of individual development in the context of ______.
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Individual development in the context of the history of the species
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Evolutionary psychology includes the study of _____.
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the origins of social behavior
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Which of the following statements best illustrates the link between evolutionary theory and psychosocial theory?
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Individuals face a continuous struggle to adapt traits and abilities to environmental demands.
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Which of the following is considered the focus of Freud's psychosexual theory?
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The influence of sexual and aggressive drives to motivate behavior
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According to psychosexual theory, which structure houses the person's moral and ethical principles?
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Superego
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_____ is a common defense mechanism used by children and adults in which they claim that a bad experience never happened.
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Denial
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According to psychosexual theory, what are the stages of development?
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Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
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Which of the following statements reflects an important contribution made by psychosexual theory to the study of human development?
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The role of childhood experiences can be used to explain adult behavior.
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Which of the following statements is considered a difference between psychosocial and psychosexual theory?
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Psychosocial theory suggests directions for development beyond adolescence into adulthood and old age.
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Which of the following psychosexual terms is most closely related to the processes of cognition?
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Ego functions
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What is the difference between a scheme and an operation in cognitive developmental theory?
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An operation is a mental manipulation of related schemes.
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In Piaget's theory, which of the following are considered the two complementary processes that account for adaptation?
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Assimilation and accommodation
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Accommodation is referred to as the ______.
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tendency to modify schemes to account for new attributes revealed through experience.
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The first state in Piaget's cognitive developmental theory is _____.
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sensorimotor intelligence.
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Which of the following statements best describes a characteristic of formal operational thought?
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Logic is based on the creation of a system of interrelated rules that can be used for problem solving.
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Which of the following is considered one of Piaget's contribution to understanding infant cognition?
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Infants establish logical connections
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By asking children how they know what they know, Piaget introduced the study of _____.
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metacognition
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In contrast to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, Vygotsky placed greater emphasis on ____.
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social context
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What is the zone of proximal development?
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Distance between developmental level and level of potential development
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Which of the following statements is considered an implication for human development based on Vygotsky's theory?
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Social interaction and culture shape an individual's cognitive development
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Vicarious reinforcement can best be described as learning _____.
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by observing what happens to someone else who is either rewarded or punished for their actions.
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When Don watches his brother practice the piano, he sees how proud his mother is and how she compliments for his hard work. This encourages Don to practice his trumpet. According to social learning theory, this is an example of which of the following?
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Vicarious reinforcement
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Which of the following best describes the difference between cognitive behaviorism and the other theories of learning?
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Cognitive behaviorists study internal mental activities that influence behavior.
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Sudha has been driving to school using the same route for two years. Although she has never had time to stop the Coffee Corner on her way to school, she knows where it is and how to direct a friend there. This is an example of which of the following concepts?
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Cognitive map
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According to Walter Mischel's six types of cognitive-affective factors that influence behavior, which of the following best describes self-regulatory plans?
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Strategies to achieve one's goals
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Which of the following terms refers to the system of meaning and patterns of behavior that are shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next?
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Culture
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Which of the following is an example of cultural determinism?
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Some cultures value aggressiveness and reward aggressive behaviors, whereas other cultures consider aggression shameful or a sign of immaturity.
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Young children are scolded for being selfish but when they are adults they are expected to be assertive and self-reliant. This is an example of
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cultural discontinuity
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According to cultural theory, what determines whether behavior appears to occur in stages?
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The degree of discontinuity in cultural conditioning
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Which of the following is considered a link between social role theory and psychosocial theory?
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Role relationships and the radius of significant others
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In order to adapt to changes in the environment, systems require which of the following?
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Feedback mechanisms
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According to Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory, which of the following refers to the passage of time?
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Chronosystem
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The application of systems theory to families has focused primarily on
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how families establish boundaries and rules
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Which statement best describes systems theory?
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Family members are interdependent in which each member can influence the others.
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T or F: The assumptions of any theory may or may not be correct
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True
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T or F: Psychosexual theory gives a greater role to the individual in shaping his or her own development than psychosocial theory.
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False
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T or F: According to cognitive theory, accommodation is the tendency to interpret new experiences in terms of an existing scheme.
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False
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T or F: Inner speech helps the child problem-solve.
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True
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T or F: Vygotsky theorized that language is a barrier between generations.
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False
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Why is psychosocial theory useful as an organizing framework?
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It assumes people actively contribute to their development.
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Who is considered the developer of psychosocial theory?
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Erik Erikson
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The process of psychosocial evolution is centered on _____.
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gathering knowledge from ancestors and passing it to future generations
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Which term refers to the transmission of values and knowledge across generations?
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Psychosocial evolution
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Psychosocial theory is considered a stage theory because at each stage ______.
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accomplishments from previous stages provide resources for mastering challenges at new stages
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The stage theory concept _____.
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proposes a specific direction of development
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Which of the following statements best describes the concept of stages?
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All individuals follow the same basic stage sequence.
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Which of the following statements is considered a strength of Erikson's theory of psychosocial stages?
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Stages incorporate biological and societal influences.
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Which of the following statements reflects a psychosocial stage approach to development?
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All of these reflect a psychosocial approach.
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The epigenetic principle refers to _____.
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a biological plan for growth.
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Which of the following is not a characteristic of developmental stages in psychosocial theory?
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Once a stage is passed, there is no way to review or reinterpret events from that stage.
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Which of the following statements about psychosocial stages is most accurate?
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The way one perceives and experiences life varies qualitatively from stage to stage.
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Which of the following terms refers to the set of skills and competencies that contribute to increased mastery over one's environment at a particular life stage?
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Developmental tasks
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Developmental tasks can be viewed as _____.
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competencies that lead to mastery of the environment.
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According to Robert Havighurst, which of the following terms is considered a time when a person is most ready to acquire a new ability?
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Sensitive period
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According to psychosocial theory, development occurs as a result of which of the following crises?
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Interaction between individual needs and societal demands
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According to psychosocial theory, prior to the end of each life stage, individuals try to adjust to societal demands based on their personal terms. This process produces tension that must be reduced in order to develop to the next stage. This tension produces ______>
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psychosocial crisis.
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Psychosocial crises arise because ______.
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of a discrepancy between a person's competence and societal expectations.
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Which of the following statements about the negative pole of the psychosocial crisis is most accurate?
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Most people experience both the negative as well as the positive poles of each psychosocial crisis
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In terms of the context of development, culture refers to _____.
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socially standardized ways of thinking, feeling, and acting shared by members of a society.
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The ability to enlist affective and behavioral strategies is a key element of ______.
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coping behavior.
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Problem-focused coping refers to _____.
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Changing something about the source of stress.
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Core pathologies _____.
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protect the person from unwanted interaction with the societal system
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Which of the following is no longer considered a weakness of psychosocial theory?
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Basic concepts are presented in terms that are abstract and difficult to measure.
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Which of the following statements is most accurate concerning life expectancy and psychosocial theory?
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As life expectancy increases, it is expected that developmental tasks may need reexamination.
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T or F: The important of some prime adaptive ego qualities, such as love and wisdom, has been verified by research.
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True
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T or F: Core pathologies can lead to paralysis of action and thought that prevents productivity.
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True
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T or F: Erikson suggested that previous stages can be reinterpreted later.
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True
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Which characteristic is transmitted through a specific gene pool?
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Hair color
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What is a DNA molecule composed of?
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Sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen bases.
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What are chromosomes?
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Strands of genetic material
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Which of the following traits are found on one gene?
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NONE OF THESE (Sociability, intelligence, criminality)
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If the alleles of a gene are the same, the gene is said to be _____.
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homozygous
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In a dominance relation, if the dominant allele is present, its characteristic is always ______.
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observed
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Why is hemophilia a sex-linked trait?
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Because it is carried on the sex chromosome (the 23rd pair)
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Approximately what percent of infants who survive the neonatal period have genetic anomalies?
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3% to 5%
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How might genetic counseling influence the gene pool?
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Deciding not to have children decreases the incidence of a disease over time.
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A child's measured intelligence is a product of the child's genotype for intelligence and the quality of the environment in which the child is raised and educated. This is an example of the concept of ______.
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Reaction range
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Sperm can stay alive in the uterus for how long?
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Up to five days
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An ovum or egg will live for how long before it begins to disintegrate?
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24 hours
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What is the pregnancy rate for women using Assisted Reproductive Technology? In other words, what percent of cycles result in pregnancies?
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30%
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Which of the following occurs during the embryonic period associated with pregnancy?
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The placenta is formed.
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Agents that can produce malformation is the fetus while tissues and organs are forming are called ______.
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Teratogens
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At what age in fetal development would you expect to FIRST hear the fetal heartbeat?
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3 months
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Which of the following behaviors is first observed during the SECOND trimester?
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Preference for a sweet taste
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At 23 weeks of gestation, a baby's foot will appear ______.
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the same as full term but much smaller.
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According to the text, the psychological adaptation to the birth process of labor consists of _____ stages.
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five
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Two-thirds of infant deaths occur _______.
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within first month after birth.
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What impact might a father's depression have on a mother during her pregnancy?
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It increases her sense of isolation and depression.
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About how many years of potential childbearing are there for healthy women?
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35
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What is the most important factor that contributes to prematurity for babies to mothers age 16 and younger?
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The mother's biological immaturity
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Which of the following conditions of malnutrition is linked to the most serious growth retardation?
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A combination of b and c. (b. Malnutrition during pregnancy; c. malnutrition of the infant after birth)
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Children born to untreated HIV positive mothers have a _____ % chance of developing the disease and a ______% chance if breastfed.
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25; 45
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How have medical practices in the United States related to pregnancy and childbirth changed since the 1940s and 50s?
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Greater involvement of fathers during labor and delivery
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T or F: Fetal behavior indicates periods of REM and non-REM sleep.
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True
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T or F: Infant mortality rates are much lower in the United States than in Japan.
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False
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T or F: Thirty-four percent of women describe their childbirth experience as traumatic.
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True
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The purpose of the Apgar score, which is calculated twice within the first five minutes of birth, is to _______.
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asses an infant's life signs to determine the need for intervention at birth.
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A typical characteristic of very low birth weight baby is _______.
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unpleasant, high-pitched cries.
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Which statement best describes plasticity?
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Sensory experiences can strengthen certain neural pathways; less used pathways may disappear.
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The age at which infants see objects as well as adults do (although perhaps with varying cognitive perceptions than the adults) is _______.
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4 months
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What effect do sweet-tasting substances have on newborns?
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They have a calming effect
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The reflexive motor responses of the newborn infant serve to _______.
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facilitate the infant's survival.
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In the development of reaching and pushing, which of the following is the earliest behavior likely to be observed?
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Holding an object in both hands
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Cultures such as Africa and Central America hold infants upright rather than lying them down in a cradle or crib. Infants in these cultures tend to ______.
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walk at an earlier age than western infants.
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An infant who is able to use different techniques for sucking from a breast and sucking from a bottle is demonstrating _______.
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sensorimotor intelligence
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How do infants grow in their understanding of causality?
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Through sensory and motor investigation
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What are the first and last phases in the development of casual schemes during the sensorimotor period?
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Reflexes; insight
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Objects do not cease to exist when they are out of reach or view. This concept is referred to as ______.
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Object permanence
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Renee Baillargeon has conducted a number of studies to examine infants' reactions to objects that are hidden from view. Infants as young as 4 months appear to be surprised when a toy car emerges from behind a screen when it should have been blocked. What is the basic purpose of her studies?
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To demonstrate that infants have a mental image of an object even when it is out of view.
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What is the adaptive role of the capacity for categorization?
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It reduces the amount of information that must be processed for each instance of the category.
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What is one contribution of emotions to survival?
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To serve as adult-infant communication
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Anthony is 4 months old. What behaviors might suggest the formation of a preference for the object of his attachment?
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Anthony smiles more at the object of attachment than at a stranger
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About what age do infants form an internal, mental representation of the object of attachment?
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9 to 12 months
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Under which conditions would you expect a 9-month-old baby to make the strongest protest over separation?
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The mother leaves the baby in a laboratory room and closes the door behind her.
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Babies who show a(n) _____ attachment appear to cry the most in the home situation.
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anxious-avoidant
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Infant who show an anxious-resistant attachment appear to have an internal, mental representation of the mother as ______.
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unpredictable
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When mothers are inconsistent in responsiveness to their babies, the babies are characterized as ______.
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Anxious-resistant
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Which attachment pattern is linked with the most serious mental health problems in later childhood?
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Disorganized
