Rutgers General Psychology Final Exam Keiko (New Material) – Flashcards
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brings changes in how individual lives and requires considerable adaptation
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What is the life change approach to measuring stress?
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minor annoying events which require some degree of adjustment negative cumulative effects on health
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What is the daily hassles approach to measuring stress?
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Cognitive interpretations that affect the degree to which an individual experiences stress reactions. Appraisal rather than objective circumstances
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What is Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) concept of cognitive appraisal?
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stress leads to unhealthy behaviors in attempt to cope with stress
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What are the stress and unhealthy behavior?
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when animals perceive threatening situations, respond with physiological reaction to prepare for fighting or running away
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What is Cannon's fight-or-flight mechanism?
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Alarm - body mobilizes to respond to stress Resistance - efforts to take action to overcome stress Exhaustion - physical resources are depleted in the process of trying to overcome or adjust to threat
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What are the 3 stages of Selye's general adaption syndrome?
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body responds to threatening stimuli by arousal of system of defenses
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What is Selye's general adaptation syndrome?
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People that were more stressed were more susceptible to the cold virus Stress = adrenal glands release epinephrine, norepinephrine = impaired immune functioning
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What was found in Cohen et al.'s (1993) study?
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hostility
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What is the toxic element of Type A personality?
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relaxed, less competitive
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Type B behavior pattern
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competitive, hostile, tense Link between behavior pattern and heart disease
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Type A behavior pattern?
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attempts to reduce distress emotions
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What are emotion-focused coping?
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actions taken to change a stressful situation or reduce its effects
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problem-focused coping?
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Greater control lower stress response, better health gave control to nursing home residents
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What was Rodin and Langer's (1976) "plant study?"
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Tendency to believe that one will generally experience good vs. bad outcomes Generally associated with positive health outcomes
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What is optimism, and how is it related to health?
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help and companionship from others better health
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What is the relation between social support and health?
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Lower stress, health benefits
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How are expressive writing, exercise, meditation, gratitude, and acts of kindness related to stress and health?
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inference that a person's behavior is caused by something about the situation
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What are external (situational) attributions?
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inference that a person's behavior is caused by something about the person
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What are internal (dispositional)?
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Fundamental attribution error - tendency to explain others' actions as stemming from dispositions, even in the presence of clear situational causes
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What is the fundamental attribution error?
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Told students either did or did not have a choice of which position to take. Participants asked about students' viewpoint
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What was Jones and Harris's (1967) study in which participants read essays supporting or opposing Castro?
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tendency to attribute our own mistakes mainly to situational causes, but the mistakes of others mainly to dispositional causes
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What is the actor-observer effect?
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tendency to attribute one's positive outcomes to internal causes but negative outcomes to external causes
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What are self-serving attributions?
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pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position
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How can social roles affect attitudes and behavior?
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Participants randomly assigned to either prisoner or prison guard
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What was Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment?
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unpleasant internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between
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What is cognitive dissonance?
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Counterattitudinal behavior - behavior that is inconsistent with person's attitudes Insufficient justification - when people perform a counterattitudinal behavior with inadequate reason, they may develop more positive attitudes toward that behavior Can lead to attitude change - people change their attitudes to align with their behaviors Choice and Effort
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What are the factors involved in cognitive dissonance?
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subjects paid either $1 or $20 to do boring task and tell next subject that it was fun Participants paid $1 enjoyed task more
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What was Festinger and Carlsmith's study?
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social influence based on the desire to be correct
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What are informational social influence?
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social influence based on the desire to be liked or accepted
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What are normative social influence?
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Participants asked to judge which comparison line best matched the standard line: Confederates unanimously chose incorrect line → 75% participants chose incorrect line at least once Important factor: presence of an ally Unanimity of social group → important to conformity
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What was Asch's study of conformity?
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sought to investigate obedience to authority. Participants served as "teachers" - instructed to inflict shocks (fake) of increasing intensity on "learner" (confederate)
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What was Milgram's study?
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65%
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What proportion of participants continued "shocking" the "learner" after he stopped responding?
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effects upon performance resulting from the presence of others Presence of others will improve performance when highly skilled at the task Presence of others will interfere with performance when not highly skilled at the task
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What is social facilitation?
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reductions in motivation and effort when individuals work collectively in a group on simple tasks
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What is social loafing?
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psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness and reduced social identity Increased feeling of anonymity Decreased feeling of responsibility or accountability Follow norms of group
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What is deindividuation?
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a hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people
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What are prejudice?
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a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group
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What is stereotypes?
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differential actions toward members of specific social groups
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What is discrimination?
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individuals seek to feel positively about the groups to which they belong because self-esteem partially depends on identifying with social groups=looks down on groups they don't belong to
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How does social identity theory explain prejudice?
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positive feelings and behavior toward people in our in-group
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What is in-group bias?
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groups united by trivial similarities. Strangers formed into groups using trivial criteria
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What was the minimal group experiment (Tajfel, 1971)?
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blue eyed people are more superior to brown eyed people. Blue eyed kids began looking down on brown eyed kids.
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What was Jane Elliot's blue-eyed and brown-eyed experiment?
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our brains automatically classify information into categories
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How does categorization explain stereotyping?
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tendency to notice and remember events that are consistent with our existing beliefs
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How does the confirmation bias explain stereotyping?
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relationship in which the outcomes of two people or groups depend on each others' actions
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What is cooperative interdependence?
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to eliminate competition and introduce cooperation in classrooms Groups of students - each has unique skill or piece of information
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What is a jigsaw classroom?
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suggests that frustration increases probability of aggressive response
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What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
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pain and heat can cause frustration which then turns to aggression
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How are pain and heat related to aggression?
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"birds of a feather flock together"
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How does similarity predict linking?
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liking those we see often
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How does Familiarity predict linking?
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liking those nearby
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How does Proximity predict linking?
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repeated exposure to a person increases our liking for the person
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What is the mere exposure effect?
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College students shown pictures of faces = liking measured Mirror image study
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How has the mere exposure effect been demonstrated in studies?
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Preference for symmetry
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How does symmetry predict attraction?
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Men's body symmetry measured Men slept in t-shirt Young women rated smell
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What was Thornhill and Gangestad's (1999) study?
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38 neighbors witnessed her murder and no one called the police
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What happened to Kitty Genovese?
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the presence of other people makes it less likely that anyone will help a stranger in distress
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What is the bystander effect?
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Participants take survey; smoke starts pouring into the room Group size varied - 1- or 3-person group Will they report smoke?
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what was the smoke-filled room study (Latané & Darley, 1968)?
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concern about social approval or disapproval
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Evaluation apprehension
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tendency of bystanders to assume nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned
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Pluralistic ignorance?
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the presence of other people makes each individual feel less personally responsible
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Diffusion of responsibility?
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Participant engages in group discussion over intercom Group size varied - 2-, 3-, or 6-person group Confederate stages seizure will participant help?
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what was the seizure study (Darley & Latané, 1968)?
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Sigmund Freud Explains behavior and personality in terms of unconscious processes Assumes that adult personality is formed primarily by experiences in early childhood
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What is the psychoanalytic perspective of personality?
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storehouse of impulses, wishes, and inaccessible memories that affect our thoughts and behavior
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What is the unconscious?
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most primitive part of personality Basic biological impulses and drives, Seeks immediate gratification, Pleasure principle
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What is the id?
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internalized morals and values of society, Conscience
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What is the Superego
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gratification of impulses must be delayed until the situation is appropriate, Mediates id, superego, Reality principle
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What is the ego?
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Unconscious mental processes aimed at protecting self from experiencing unpleasant emotions Repression - thoughts that are too anxiety-provoking to acknowledge are kept from conscious awareness Denial - person refuses to acknowledge external realities or emotions Regression - person reverts to a previous phase of development Displacement - directing emotions toward others that are not the real object of their
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What are Freud's defense mechanisms?
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reflect child's desire for pleasure and realization of social limitations Oral stage - birth-18 months, Explore world through mouth, Dependence, Oral fixation Anal stage - ages 18 mos.-3 yrs Conflict with parents about compliance and defiance, Attitudes toward order and disorder, messiness and cleanliness, Anal fixation Phallic stage - ages 3-6 Identification with father - develop feelings of similarity and connectedness boy desires exclusive relationship with mother (Greek legend - Oedipus kills father and marries mother)
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What is each of Freud's psychosexual stages (e.g., oral stage)? What is the Oedipus complex?
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all thoughts, emotions, and behaviors have causes, Unsatisfied drives and unconscious wishes unconscious desires slip out
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What is psychological determinism? What are Freudian slips?
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present ambiguous stimulus to which person may respond individual views a set of inkblots and tells what each inkblot resembles individual asked to make up a story about each of a series of ambiguous drawings
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What are projective tests? What are the Rorschach and TAT?
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self-actualization Unconditional positive regard - being given the sense that individual is valued by parents and others
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What is the humanistic perspective of personality? What is Rogers's concept of unconditional positive regard?
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Introversion-extraversion - degree to which basic orientation is turned inward toward the self or outward toward external world Emotional stability-neuroticism - emotionality
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What are Eysenck's 2 personality factors?
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Openness to experience - imaginative, witty Conscientiousness - cautious, dependable Extraversion - enthusiastic, sociable Agreeableness - friendly, cooperative Neuroticism - nervous, worrying
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What are the Big Five traits?
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Used to make diagnoses of clinical syndromes Current - DSM-5
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What is the DSM?
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psychiatric diagnosis is a way of labeling individuals a society considers deviant, Turns people into patients = may face discrimination admitted to psychiatric hospitals, Faked symptoms of schizophrenia
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What is labeling theory? What was Rosenhan's study?
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Characterized by intense, frequent, or continuous anxiety Global, persistent, chronic, and excessive anxiety, Constant sense of tension and dread attacks of intense fear and feelings of doom or terror not justified by the situation (panic attacks) irrational fear of a specific object or situation Recurrent obsessions and compulsions that cause distress and significantly interfere with an individual's life persistent thoughts behaviors that must be performed
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What are anxiety disorders? What is generalized anxiety disorder? What is panic disorder? What are panic attacks? What are phobias? What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? What are obsessions and compulsions?
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Depressed mood may emerge without clear trigger, Cognitive symptoms: thoughts of worthlessness, hopelessness Physical symptoms: disturbances in appetite, sleep, energy Extreme mood swings - alternating between depression and mania period of abnormally euphoric mood
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What is major depressive disorder? What is bipolar disorder? What is mania?
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Severe disorder of thought, emotion, and perception associated with loss of contact with reality out of touch with reality strongly held, fixed beliefs that have no basis in reality sensory perceptions that distort or occur without an external stimulus skips from topic to topic Word salad motor problems presence of something not usually there, Ex.Delusions, hallucinations absence of something Ex.Flat affect, expressionless faces
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What is schizophrenia? What does it mean to have psychotic symptoms? What are delusions and hallucinations? What is disorganized speech? What is word salad? What are catatonic symptoms? What are positive and negative symptoms?
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little sense of responsibility, morality, or concern for others Lack conscience
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What is antisocial personality disorder?
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Freudian Goal: make the unconscious conscious the meaning of the way the unconscious thoughts and emotions are processed in the mind during sleep. the expression (as by speaking or writing) of the content of consciousness without censorship as an aid in gaining access to unconscious process projection of intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from their past onto the therapist
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What is psychoanalytic therapy? What are dream interpretation, free association, and transference?
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Emphasizes realization of human potential Nondirective Authenticity Unconditional positive regard Empathy Reflection
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What is humanistic therapy? What are important qualities of Rogers's person-centered therapy (e.g., nondirective)?
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Uses principles of learning and conditioning methods: confronts clients with what they fear client confronts the feared stimulus all at once relax as they are gradually exposed to what they fear, Uses counterconditioning, Pair incompatible relaxation response with anxiety methods: Use reinforcement and punishment desirable behaviors are rewarded with tokens that patients can exchange for tangible rewards
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What is behavioral therapy? What are classical conditioning and operant conditioning methods? What is exposure therapy? What is flooding? What is systematic desensitization?
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Focuses on thought processes that underlie psychological symptoms Therapist questions patient's distorted assumptions and beliefs Change maladaptive patterns of thought and behavior Aaron Beck
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What is cognitive therapy?
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Combination of cognitive and behavior therapies Identifies automatic thoughts Focus on changing thoughts and behavior
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What is cognitive-behavioral therapy?
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25% better off than control All forms more effective than no therapy Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy better established than other forms
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How effective is psychotherapy?
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antipsychotic drugs Very effective for positive symptoms, Side effects anti-anxiety medications, Useful for short-term - calm jittery feelings, relax muscles antidepressant medications, Most common - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) lithium
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What drugs are used to treat schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder?
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brief burst of electric current to induce seizure in brain More effective than antidepressant drugs Side effect - memory loss
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What is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?
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Positive or negative events
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Social Readjustment Rating Scale?
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determination of whether an event has any potential negative effects determination of whether one has abilities and resources to overcome threat of harm
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What are primary and secondary appraisal?
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stress leads to physiological reactions that lead to disease
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physiological stress and illness models?
