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Information processing model

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assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of 3 stages-encoding, storage, retrieval.

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3 processes of memory

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1. putting it in(encoding) 2. keeping it in(storage) 3. getting it out(retrieval)

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encoding

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set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form thats usable in the brains storage system.

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storage

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holding onto information for some period of time.

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retrieval

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getting the information they know they have out of storage; long term memory.

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3 stages of memory

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sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory.

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sensory memory

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point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems-eyes and ears; first stage of memory.

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short term memory

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memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used; second stage of memory.

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long term memory

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system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently; third stage of memory.

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serial position effect

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tendency of information at the beginning and end of the body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information.

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3 barriers to successful problem solving

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1. functional fixedness 2. mental set 3. confirmation bias

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functional fixedness

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thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions.

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mental set

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tendency for people to persist in using problem solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.

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confirmation bias

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tendency to search for evidence that fits ones beliefs while ignoring any evidence that doesn't fit those beliefs.

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sensorimotor stage

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birth-2 years; infants use their senses and motor abilities to learn about the world around them.

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preoperational stage

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2-7 years; developing language, and concepts.

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concrete operations stage

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7-12 years; capable of conservation and reversible thinking.

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formal operations

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12 years-adult; abstract thinking is possible.

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Visual sensory memory is known as

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Iconic memory.

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In spite of the loud music and many conversations at the party, Rachel was able to hear her friend say her name. Rachel's ability to hear her name regardless of the background noise is an example of

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Selective attention.

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Short-term memory tends to be encoded primarily in

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auditory form.

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George Miller concluded that the capacity of the STM is

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from five to nine bits of information.

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Eve is able to remember her Social Security number by breaking it into three parts—three numbers-two numbers-four numbers. Eve is using the process of

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chunking.

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What memory is like a giant filing system in which the "files" are individual bits and pieces of memories stored in a highly organized and interconnected fashion?

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Long term memory.

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Which of the following is a way of transferring information from short-term memory into long-term memory by making the information meaningful in some way?

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elaborative rehearsal.

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Once you learn how to tie your shoes, the action becomes part of

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procedural memory.

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An example of an episodic memory would be

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a special gift you received on your 13th birthday.

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You walk into a room and know that there's something you need, but in order to remember it, you have to go back to the room you started in and use your surroundings. This illustrates

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the importance of retrieval cues in memory.

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What is the tendency for memory of any kind of information to be improved if the physical surroundings available when the memory is first formed are also available when the memory is being retrieved?

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encoding specificity.

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Chris learns her vocabulary words while listening to upbeat, happy music, and is then better able to remember them later if she is happy. This is called

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state-dependent learning.

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People's memories of September 11, 2001, are best described as

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flashbulb memories.

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The constructive processing view says that every time a memory is retrieved,

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it may be altered or revised in some way.

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Kevin was in a study during which he was shown a photo of a man with straight hair. Later he was asked if he noticed the man's curly hair. Kevin was then convinced that the man in the photo had curly hair. This is an example of

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the misinformation effect.

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While hypnosis may make it easier to recall some memories, it also

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makes it easier to create false memories.

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Ebbinghaus found that forgetting

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is greatest after learning.

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Quincy had a terrifying experience in which he was attacked by a dog. This memory is likely stored in the

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amygdala.

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Brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF), a key protein involved in the formation of memories, is stimulated by

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continued everyday learning.

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In order for people to be able to tell you how many televisions they have in their house, they would probably use

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mental image.

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What is an example of a superordinate concept?

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Fruit.

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What form as the result of people's experiences with concepts in the real world?

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natural concepts.

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Whether a whale is a fish or a mammal is an example of a

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prototype.

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A person's schema for a library would most likely include

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books and bookshelves.

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Algorithms

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are also known as mechanical solutions.

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The representative heuristic can be used to create and sustain

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scripts

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A boy and his father are in a car accident. The father is killed, and the boy is rushed to the hospital. At the hospital, the doctor says, "I can't operate on this boy. He's my son!" How is this possible? If a person thinks about this problem without using a particular method, and the answer just comes to them after a period of time, the person solved this problem with

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insight.

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Erik dropped a note under his car seat and couldn't find it. He looked all through the glove compartment for a flashlight so that he could get a better look under his seat. He later realized he could have just held his cell phone under the seat to help illuminate the area. This is an example of

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functional fixedness.

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People who believe that aliens have come to earth may disregard evidence that crop circles are human-made. This is an example of

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confirmation bias.

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Making a list of all the ways one could use a butter knife requires

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divergent thinking.

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Brainstorming, keeping a journal, and subject mind mapping are all

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strategies to stimulate divergent thinker.

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Gardner theorized that there are ____ types of intelligence

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nine.

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Sternberg's three types of intelligence are analytical, creative, and

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practical.

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According to Sternberg's theory, ____________ intelligence is measured in academic achievement tests

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analytical.

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Standard deviation is the average variation of scores from the

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mean.

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According to Noam Chomsky, humans have an innate ability to understand and produce language through

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the language acquisition device.

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In some languages, changing the ______ of a spoken word can change its entire meaning

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morphemes.

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Csikszentmihalyi found that

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creative people are not necessarily unconventional in all aspects of their lives

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Researchers have found that animals ________ with one another

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use language.

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A psychologist observes a group of nine-year-olds and a group of thirteen-year-olds during recess at school in order to assess changes in play group preferences of boys and girls between these two ages. This researcher's study uses a ________ design.

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cross-sectional.

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The view of most psychologists regarding the relationship between heredity and environmental factors in determining development is that all we are and all we become is the result of

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the interaction between nature and nurture.

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________ studies the issue of nature versus nurture.

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behavioral genetics.

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Genes that tend to fade into the background when paired with a more dominant gene are called

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recessive.

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The moment at which a female becomes pregnant is called

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conception.

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________, which may be used to grow new organs or tissues for transplant or to repair neurological damage, develop during the germinal period.

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stem cells.

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A child may see a dog and say, "Cat!" because both have fur. When corrected, the child may change her scheme for cat to "furry" and "pointy ears." This is

answer

accommodation.

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Animism is the belief

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that anything that moves is alive.

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Three-year-old Kara loves Barbie dolls, so she decides to give one to her mother for Christmas. This is

answer

egocentrism.

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Piaget suggested that children become able to deal effectively with abstract concepts during the ________ stage.

answer

formal operations.

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In his theories of development, Piaget focused on

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the child's internal cognitive development.

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With respect to their babies' needs, mothers of ______ babies are unresponsive, insensitive, and coldly rejecting.

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avoidant.

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When adolescents move into Piaget's final stage of formal operations, what becomes possible?

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abstract thinking.

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A child who criticizes his parent for speeding because speeding is against the law is demonstrating ________ morality.

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conventional morality.

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Men

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go through a time of sexual changes similar to but less dramatic than menopause

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In Erikson's view, unfinished issues of identity lead to ______ in young adulthood.

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isolation.

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________ parents seem to be too involved with their children.

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Permissive indulgent.

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Children raised with an authoritarian style of parenting are often.

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insecure and resentful.

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The generativity versus stagnation developmental crisis occurs during the ________ stage

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middle adulthood.

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In cellular-block theory, telomeres _________, which ultimately causes aging.

answer

die.

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________ is the final completion of the ego.

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euphoria.

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In extrinsic motivation, a person is motivated

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to work for an outcome that is separate or external from themself.

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Claire is intrinsically motivated to play tennis. Why does she play?

answer

She enjoys the exercise and the game because playing is enjoyable and rewarding to her

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The biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals are called

answer

Instincts.

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Which of the following instincts is responsible for our reaction to run away if we sense danger?

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flight.

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A(n) __________ is a requirement of some material, such as food or water, that is essential for survival of the organism.

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need.

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____________ is the psychological tension and physical arousal created when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension.

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Drive.

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Gloria has many friends and is very popular at work. In addition, she continually talks with her friends on the telephone as well as going out with them several nights per week. A psychologist would say Gloria has a need for

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affiliation.

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According to Maslow, peak experiences are

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times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved

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Which of the following are the three levels of Clayton Alderfer's revised hierarchy?

answer

Existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs

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According to Ryan and Deci's research, when a person feels a strong sense of autonomy and competence when completing a task, his/her ____________ increases.

answer

drive reduction.

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Which of the following is NOT an element of emotion?

answer

anticipation of what another human being may feel.

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The physical arousal of emotion is created by the

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sympathetic nervous system.

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Which part of the brain is associated with emotion?

answer

cerebral cortex

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In a social situation, an American may display anger outwardly by shouting or banging on a table, but a Japanese person may not show anger outwardly at all and will remain calm. This is an example of

answer

Display rules.

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Adam wants to feel happier. According to the facial feedback hypothesis, what should Adam do?

answer

smile more.

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