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Psychology

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The scientific study of behavior

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Psychology Clinical Practice

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Encompasses the services provided in therapists' offices, schools, hospitals, and business.

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Psychology is best defines as the scientific study of

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human thought and behavior

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As a field, psychology is

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a social science, the practice of diagnosing and treating mental illness, and all biological science

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How does psychology differ from the related field of sociology?

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Psychology studies individuals; sociology studies groups

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Cognitive Psychology

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The study of how we perceive information, how we learn and remember, how we acquire and use language, and how we solve problems. EXAMPLE: A researcher who is concerned with how people visualize objects in their mind is studying cognitive psychology.

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Developmental Psychology

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Explores how thoughts and behavior change and show stability across the life span. This developmental perspective allows us to appreciate that organism-human or otherwise-change and grow. Developmental Psychologists ask questions like: How do our reasoning skills change as we age? How does parent-infant bonding affect adult relationships? Does old age bring wisdom?

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Behavioral Neuroscience

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Studies the links among brain, mind, and behavior. Neuroscience cuts across various disciplines and subdisciplines of psychology. One can study brain functions involved in learning, emotion, social behavior, and mental illness.

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Personality Psychology

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Considered what makes people unique as well as the consistencies in people's behavior across time and situations. Personality research addresses questions such as whether our persona; traits and dispositions change or stay the same from infancy to childhood to adulthood. EXAMPLE: Whether the tendency to be friendly, anxious, or hostile affects one's health, career choice, or interpersonal relationships, and whether a friendly or anxious child will necessarily have those same characteristics as an adult.

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Social Psychology

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Considers how the real or imagined presence of others influences thought, feeling, and behavior.

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Clinical Psychology

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Focuses on the diagnosis and treatment or mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders and ways to promote psychological health. Some clinical psychologists also conduct research and teach. * Work in universities, medical settings, or private practice * Single largest subdiscipline in psychology

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Counseling Psychology

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Related to Clinical Psychology * Tend to work with less severe psychological disorders than clinical psychologists * Treat and assess relatively healthy people and assist them with career and vocational interest.

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Health Psychology

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Examines the role of psychological factors in physical health and illness. Topics in health psychology rane from studies of how stress is linked to illness and immune function to studies on the role of social factors in how people interact with health care professionals. Some health psychologists work in disease prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation; thus, this area involves clinical practice as well as research.

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Educational Psychology

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Draws on several other areas of psychology to study how students learn, the effectiveness of particular teaching techniques, the dynamics of school populations, and the psychology of teaching. This field also attempts to understand special populations, and the psychology of teaching. This field also attempts to understand special population of students such as the academically gifted and those with special needs.

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School Psychology

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Is related to educational psychology--generally practiced by counselors in school settings.

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Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology

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Applied science, meaning it involves understanding real-world rather than laboratory behavior. The industrial and organizational sides focus on two distinct sets of problems. *Industrial Side-Involves matching employees to their job and uses psychological principles and methods to select employees and evaluate job performance. *Organizational Side=Aims to make workers more productive and satisfied by considering how the work environmental and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

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Sports Psycholoy

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Examines the psychological factors that affect performance and participation in sports and exercise. Sports psychologists might focus on improving athletic performance through techniques such as relaxation and visualization.

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Forensic Psychology

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Blend of psychology, law, and criminal justice. Make legal evaluations of a person's mental competency to stand trial, the state of mind of a defendant at the time of a crime, the fitness of a parent to have custody of children, or allegations of child abuse. Occasionally they develop criminal profiles of the type of person who might have committed a particular crime.

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What subdiscipline of psychology examines how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors change over the life span?

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Developmental psychology

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A Psychologist has conducted a series of studies on what part of the brain is most active during a memory task. She is probably---

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a Behavioral neuroscientist

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The main difference between a clinical and counseling psychologist is that counseling psychologists treat --

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people with less severe psychological disorders

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Structuralism

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Breaking down experience into its elemental parts offers the best way to understand thought and behavior. *Believes that a detailed analysis of experience as it happened provides the most accurate glimpse into the workings of the human mind. *Structuralists divided each experience into its smallest elements.

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Introspections

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Structuralism's method--Looking into one's own mind for information about the nature of conscious experience. *Structuralists divided each experience into its smallest elements.

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Functionalism

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Influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection---Psychologists who supported this thought is was better to look at why the mind worked the way it did, rather than to describe its parts. The functionalists asked "Why do people think, feel, or perceive, and how did those abilities come to be?" Functionalists used introspection as well. William James, the most famous functionalist, relied on introspection as a primary method of understanding how the mind worked.

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Behaviorism

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1913-John Watson, directly challenged the use of introspection. *Founded behaviorism *Behaviorism-asserts that psychology can be a true science only if it examines observable behavior, not ideas, thoughts, feelings, or motives.

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Humanistic Psychology

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In the 1940's and 1950's, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers presented an alternative to both of these perspectives. They argued that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism ignored people at their best, and neither approach considered what it meant to be psychologically healthy. Maslow and Rogers proposed an alternative called humanistic psychology, which promoted personal grown and meaning as a way of reaching one's highest potential.

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Positive Psychology

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Shares with humanism a belief that psychology should focus on studying, understanding, and promoting healthy and positive psychological functioning. It does so with a better appreciation than humanistic psychology for the importance of studying well-being from a scientific perspective.

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Cognitivism/Gestalt Psychology

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Led by Max Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology proposed that in perception a unified whole is more than a compilation of parts. As the Gestaltists suspected, our brains actively shape sensory information into perceptions.

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What perspectives in psychology assumes the unconscious is the most powerful force behind most behavior?

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Structuralism

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----- argues that thoughts, feelings, and motives are unimportant in understanding human behavior.

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Behaviorists

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Positive psychology is a modern form of which school of thought?

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humanism

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The Nature-Nurture Debate

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For millennia thinkers have argued over whet determines our personality and behavior" innate biology or life experience. This conflict is known as the nature-nurture debate. The nature-only view is that who we are comes from inborn tendencies and genetically based traits. Pitting nature against nurture, however, gets us nowhere. It creates a false split, or false dichotomy, that hinders our understanding of the mind and havior. Almost nothing in psychology can be categorized as either nature or nurture--not learning, not memory, not cognition, not emotion, not even social behavior. These forces will work together almost all the time; they are interdependent.

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Nature through nurture

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The position that the environment constantly interacts with biology to shape who we are and what we do.

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Mind-Body Dualism

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Descartes stated that the mind and the body are separate entities. This idea is often referred to as min-body dualism. From this perspective, the mind controls the body. The body can occasionally control the mind too, but mainly when we abandon good judgment, such as in the throes of passion. Mostly, in Descartes' view, mind and body are separate.

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Evolution

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Evolution means "change". With respect to biological species, evolution is the change over time in the frequency with which specific genes occur within a breeding species.

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Natural Selection

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First described by the 19th-century English naturalist Charles Darwin. *Formally defined as a feedback process whereby nature favors one design over another, depending on whether it has an impact on reproduction.

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Adaptations

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The accumulation of change mutations underlies evolutionary change. Each generation is a product of beneficial modifications from its evolutionary pas. Natural selection creates structures and behaviors that solve adaptive problems. Among the adaptive problems that our early human ancestors faced were avoiding predators, choosing nutritious foods, finding a mat, and communicating effectively with others. *Adaptations are inherited solutions to ancestral problems that have been naturally selected because they are directly contributed in some way to reproductive success.

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Evolutionary Psychology

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The branch of psychology that aims to uncover the adaptive problems the human mind may have solved in the distant past and the effect of evolution on behavior today. Rather than just describing what the mind does, evolutionary psychologists are interested in the functions of the human mind. **Not all products of evolution are adaptations. Sometimes things evolve because they solved one problem and they just happen to solve another one too. The structures or features that perform a function that did not arise through natural selection are often called by-products, or more technically exaptations.

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Which phrase most accurately reflection a modern perspective in psychology?

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Nature through nurture

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Charles Darwin's great contribution was the theory of ______

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how evolution works (natural selection)

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Mind-body dualism proposes that _____

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the mind and body are separate.

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Privately Public

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Connecting with many people, while being relatively nonpublic about revealing who you are.

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Publicly Private

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You disclose a lot of details of your private life and may or may not limit access to your site.

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Which of the following is a technique we argue for integrating the many perspectives in psychology?

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ALL-using not believing everything you think, using the scientific method, and making connections within and between chapters.

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What area of psychology has reported findings that driving while using a hands-free cell phone is much like driving while being drunk?

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Cognitive psychology

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Dr. Porsche is a psychologist who conducts research on whether hands-free phone use distracts drivers and leads to more accidents. Dr. Porsche is probably what kinds of psychologist?

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Cognitive

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What would a cognitive psychologist most likely be interested in when studying romantic relationships?

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Consistency of shared memories between partners.

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A psychologist who studies logical reasoning is likely a _____ psychologist.

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Cognitive psychologist

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Development psychologists are interested in age related changes in behavior from conception until ______

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death

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Behavioral neuroscience is the study of how the brain and nervous system influence _____

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behavior

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A psychologist who studies how the mind works by recording brain activity while a student studies for a test is a ______

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behavioral neuroscientist

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A(n) _____ psychologist would most likely be interested in talking to a college student that is having issues adjusting to life changes such as going to college.

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counseling

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_____ psychology is the unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and motives that characterize and individual.

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Personality

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____ psychology is the study of what makes people unique and the consistencies in people's behavior across time and situations.

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Personality

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Someone interested in ____ psychology might be interested in how introverted people have differently from the extroverted people.

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Personality

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_____ psychology is the study of how living among others influences thought, feeling, and behavior.

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Social

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A ___ psychologist might study how best to treat schizophrenia.

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Clinical

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Unlike clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists help people who are _______

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having difficulty adjusting to new circumstances.

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_______ psychology examines the role of psychological processes in physical illness and well-being.

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Health

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A psychologist studying the relationship between emotional trauma and heart disease is LIKELY a ______ psychologist.

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Health

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____ psychology is the study of how students learn, the effectiveness of particular teaching techniques, the social psychology of schools, and the psychology of teaching.

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Educational

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______ psychologists study more effectiveness ways for teachers to teach and students to learn.

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Educational

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This branch of psychology applies psychological concepts and questions to work settings and problems. What is it?

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Industrial/Organizational

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___ psychology is the study of psychological factors in sports and exercise.

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Sport

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_____ psychology studies psychological factors in sports and exercise.

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Sport

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_____ psychology combines psychology and the legal and criminal justice systems.

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Forensic

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Wundt's approach, ___, focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness and thinking.

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structuralism

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When you are asked to describe in as much detail as you can what are you experiencing, you are being asked to ____

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introspect

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Which psychologist is most closely tied to humanism?

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Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

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The behavioral perspective

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suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study.

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Unlike other psychological perspectives, humanism focuses on _____

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growth and control

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____ is a theory of psychology that uses a scientific approach to study psychological well-being.

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Positive psychology

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The relative importance of the environment (womb, home, or world) and heredity (genes) in the shaping human behavior is central to what debate?

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Nature-nurture

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_____ is the separation of mind and body.

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Dualism

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Some evolutionary psychologists suggest that humans inherit a preference for fatty foods because this trait was useful when humans lived as hunter-gatherers. This is an example of a(n) ____.

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adaptation

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____ is the change over time in the frequency with which specific genes occur within a breeding species.

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Evolution

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Structures or features that perform a function that did not arise through natural selection are often called _____

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by-products

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A behaviorist might study _____

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learning through conditioning.

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Feathers are an example of a(n) ___ because feathers probably evolved for insulation in flightless dinosaurs, but feathers turned out to be useful for flight in birds, descendants of dinosaurs.

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by-product

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Biological Psychology

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Study of the relationship between bodily systems and chemicals and how they influence behavior and thought.

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Shaman

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Medicine men or women who would treat the possessed by driving out the demons with elaborate rituals, such as exorcisms, incantations, and prayers. Occasionally, some of these shamans appeared to practice the oldest of all known surgical procedures, trephination.

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Trephination

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Oldest of all known surgical procedures--Drilling a small hole in a person's skill, usually less than an inch in diameter.

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Asylums

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During the witch hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries, the first facilities for the mentally ill were built throughout Europe. The most famous, or infamous, of these was located in St. Mary of Bethlehem in London, England. Although it had served as a hospital for the mentally ill and others since the 1300's, Henry VIII designated it as a hospital for the insane in 1547.

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Moral Treatment

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19th-Century approach to treating the mentally ill with dignity in a caring environment. The first major proponent of humane therapies was the Frenchman Philip Pinel in 1783. Dorothea Dix pioneered moral treatment in the US.

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Psychoanalysis

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a clinically based approach to understanding and treating psychological disorders assumes that the unconscious mind is the most powerful force behind thought and behavior.

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Empiricism

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the view that all knowledge and thoughts come from experience **John Locke

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Tabula rasa

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mind begins as a blank slate

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Psychophysics

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the study of how people psychologically perceive physical stimuli such as light, sound waves, and touch. **First scientific form of psychology. It included laboratory studies of the subjective experience of physical sensations.

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Wilhelm Wundt

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1879, Wundt set up a psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, now considered the birthplace of experimental psychology.

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Which type of psychologist conducts laboratory experiments to address their research questions?

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Experimental psychologist

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If you meet a professor who says she studies how the size of the amygdala (a brain structure) affects a child's tendency to become a bully, in what field of psychology is she likely working?

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behavioral neuroscience

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Green physician, ____m was the first physician to document acrophobia, or fear of heights.

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Hippocrates

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This psychologist opened the first experimental psychology laboratory in the US., founded the American Psychological Association (APA), and started the first psychological journal. He was also a student of William James:

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Hall

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Half of all psychologists specialize in what field of psychology?

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Clinical psychology

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Which type of psychologist would be MOST interested in electronic social interactions (i.e. email, chatrooms, instant messenger) leading to addictive behavior?

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Clinical Psychologist

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____ is the theoretical position that assumes that people use psychological defenses to protect themselves against threatening impulses, thoughts, and feelings.

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Psychoanalysis

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Father of psychophysics

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Fechner

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The psychiatrist who collected data on various kinds of psychological disorders and began developing a classification system was _____

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Kraepelin

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Which psychologist was largely responsible for making behaviorism the major approach in experimental psychology?

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Skinner

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Which psychologist made key contributions to the study of memory, physiology, and color vision?

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Helmholtz

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Which of the following researchers stated that memory is not an objective and accurate representation of events but rather a highly personal reconstruction based on one's beliefs, ideas, and point of view?

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Bartlett

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This type of therapy focuses on changing a person's maladaptive thought and behavior patterns by discussion and rewarding more appropriate ways of thinking and behaving. What is it?

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Cognitive-behavioral

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Which psychologist was a student of James, taught at Wellesley College and conducted research in the area of dreaming, attention, and self-image?

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Calkins

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In what ways is the mind-body dualism similar to the nature-nurture debate?

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Both represent false dichotomies-it is not a matter of either or, but the concepts are intertwined.

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Darwin believed that natural selection determined our physical traits. Evolutionary psychologists believe that natural selection determines our _____

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personality traits

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Adaptations evolved to solve problems in___generations, not____ones.

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past; current

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What we call fear evolved because it helps us deal quickly and efficiently with danger. This is an example of what?

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An adaptation

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Scientific Method

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Scientists conduct research consists of O-P-T-I-C (observation, prediction, testing, interpretation, and communication) *Observation and Prediction stages of a study, researchers develop expectations about an observed phenomenon *Theory-expressed expectations-defined as a set of related assumptions from which testable predictions can be made.

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Hyphothesis

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A specific, informed, and testable prediction of what kind of outcome should occur under a particular condition.

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Pseudoscience

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Practices that appear to be and claim to be science, but in fact do not use the scientific method to come to their conclusions. What makes something pseudoscientific comes more from the way it is studied than from the content area.

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research designes

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plans for how to conduct a study

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variable

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anything that changes or "varies" within or between individuals. People differ from one another on age, gender, weight, intelligence, and level of anxiety and extra-version, to name a few psychological variables.

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Descriptive designs

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the researcher makes no prediction and does not try to control any variables. She simply defines a problem of interest and describes as carefully as possible the variable of interest.

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Descriptive Methods

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Case studies, naturalistic observations, and interviews/surveys

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Case Study

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Involved observation of one person, often over a long period of time. Much wisdom and knowledge of human behavior can come from careful observations of single individuals over time.

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The scientific method consists of ----

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observing, predicting, testing, interpreting, communicating

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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of science?

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It is a search for truth

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Scientific theories are ____

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a set of assumptions that guide and explain observations and allow testable predictions to be made.

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What distinguishes science from pseudoscience

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open sketicism

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Naturalistic Observation

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researcher observes and record behavior in the real world

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Interview and Survey

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Two related and widely used techniques for gaining information about people's thoughts and behaviors are interviews and surveys.

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True Experiment characteristics

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1. Experimental manipulation of a predicted cause--the independent variable--and measurement of the response, or dependent variable. 2. Random assignment of participants to control and experimental groups or conditions--meaning that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in each group.

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Independent Variable

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In an experiment is an attribute that the experimenter manipulates under controlled conditions. The independent variable is the condition that the researcher predicts will cause a particular outcome.

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Dependent variable

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the outcome, or response to the experimental manipulation. You can think of the independent variable at the "cause" and the dependent variable as the "effect"

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Experimental Group

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Consists of those participants who receive the treatment or whatever is thought to change behavior.

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Control Group

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Consists or participants who are treated in exactly the same manner as the experimental group, but with one crucial difference: They don't receive the independent variable or treatment.

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Broad explanations and predictions are characteristics of ___

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a theory

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A(n) ___ variable is an additional variable whose influence cannot be separated from the independent variable being examined.

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Confounding

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Meta-Analysis

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Quantitative method for combining the results of all the published and even unpublished results on one question and drawing a conclusion based on the entire set of studies on the topic.

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Dr. Lovejoy wanted to do research on real-world conditions that lead to aggression in 10-year-old children. She defined aggression as "intent to harm another person" and went to a local elementary school and videotaped a 10-minute recess period. She and her trained coders then coded the behavior of every child and counted the number of times each child acted aggressively. This is an example of what kind of research design?

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descriptive

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If Dr. Lovejoy wanted to examine whether certain personality traits make aggression more likely, she would most likely use what kind of research design?

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correlation

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Researchers have consistently found that married men live longer then single men. From this finding, we can conclude that ____

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marriage correlates with longer life

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In research whether sugar causes hyperactivity, researchers randomly assign children to receive no sugar, small amounts of sugar, or larger amount of sugar. They then observe and code activity levels. In this case, the sugar level is the ____.

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independent variable

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In contrast to other kinds of research designs, a true experimental design must have two things:

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random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable.

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Self-Reports

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People's written or oral accounts of their thoughts, feelings, or actions

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Behavior measures

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involve the systematic observations of people's actions either in their normal environment (that is, naturalistic observations) or in a laboratory setting.

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Physiological Measures

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Provides data on bodily responses. For years, researchers relied on physiological information to index possible changes in psychological states.

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An advantage of self-report questionnaires is that they are easy to administer to large numbers of participants. A disadvantage of questionnaires is that ____

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people do not always accurately report their true thoughts or feelings.

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One advantage of behavioral measures compared to self-reported measures is that they ___

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are less prone to social desirability bias

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A psychologist who is interested in how brain activity relates to behavior will most likely use which kind of measure?

answer

Physiological

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Statistics

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Mathematical procedures for collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting numerical data, to make sense of their data.

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Descriptive Statistics

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Describe, summarize, and organize data.

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Mean

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Arithmetic average of a series of numbers.

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Median

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the middle score, which separates the lower half of the scores from the upper half.

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Mode

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most frequently occurring score.

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Standard Deviation

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The most common way to represent variability in data. *Statistical measure of how much scores in a sample vary around the mean.

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Frequency

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Number of times a particular score occurs in a set of data.

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Normal Distribuiton

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bell cure; a plot of how frequent data are that is perfectly symmetrical, with most score clustering in the middle and only a few scores at the extremes.

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Inferential Statistics

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Allow use to test hypotheses and make an inference as to how likely a sample score is to occur in a population.

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Probability Level

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Five in one hundred (5%) is the most frequent choice made by psychological researchers

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If two sets of scores have the same mean, then -----

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their vulnerabilities could be the same or they could be different

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Why is GPA a good example of the statistic mean?

answer

because it is calculated by adding scores and dividing by the number of scores.

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Scores that are widely spread apart have a -----

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high standard deviation

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Ethics

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the rules governing the conduct of a person or group in general or in a specific situation, or, stated more simply, ethics are standards of right and wrong.

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Ethical Research With Humans

answer

*Informed Consent *Respect for Persons *Beneficence *Privacy and Confidentiality *Justice

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Informed Consent

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Tell participants in general terms what the study is about, when they will do and how long it will take, what the known risks and benefits are, and whom to contact with questions. They must also be told that they have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

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Respect for Person

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Safeguard the dignity and autonomy of the individual and take extra precautions when dealing with study participants, such as children, who are less likely to understand that their participation is voluntary.

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Beneficence

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Inform participants of costs and benefits or participation; minimize costs for participants and maximize benefits.

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Privacy and Confidentiality

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Protect the privacy of the participant, generally by keeping all responses confidential.

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Justice

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Benefits and costs must be distributed equally among participants.

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Debriefing

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Process of informing participants of the exact purposes of the study-including the hypotheses-revealing any and all deceptive practices and explaining why they were necessary to conduct the study and ultimately what the results of the study were.

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Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

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Ensure adherence to ethical guidelines. *Evaluate proposed research before it is conducted to make sure research involving humans does not cause undue harm or distress.

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Measures

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____ are the tools and techniques used to assess thoughts or behaviors.

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In a(n) _____, responses are limited to the choices given.

answer

questionnaire

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The rules of the American Psychological Association allow participants to -----

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be deceived

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At one time, philosophy was the only "science" available to humans, and ____ was a tool that was used to describe how the world should work.

answer

Logic

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Theory

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Set of related assumptions from which testable predictions can be made. Theories organize and explain what we have observed and guide what we will observe.

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Hypothesis

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specific, informed, and testable prediction of what kind of outcome should occur under a particular condition.

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Replication

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repetition of a study to confirm the results

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Population

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The first step is for the researchers to decide the makeup of the entire group, population, in which they are interested. Populations can be composed of, animals, adolescents, boys or girls of any ago, college students, students at a particular school.

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Samples

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Subset of the population studied in a research project

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Psychobiography

answer

examines in detail the lives of historically important people and provides an example of the richness and value of case studies.

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Representative Sample

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Research sample that accurately reflects the population of people one is studying.

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Correlation Designs

answer

studies that measure two or more variables and their relationship to one another; not designed to show causation. Useful when the variables cannot be manipulated--that is, controlled by the experimenter.

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Correlation Coefficient

answer

statistic that ranges from -1.0 to + 1.0 and assesses the strength and direction of association between two variables.

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Which if NOT one of the three distinct "flavors" of science?

answer

Logical

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The ___ sciences study humans as individuals, groups, and collectively. It includes psychology, sociology, and anthropology.

answer

social

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A ___ sample is a research sample that accurately reflects the population of people one is studying.

answer

representative

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Example of survey research

answer

A study in which people complete a questionnaire about how they feel about people of different ethnic groups.

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Placebo

answer

substance or treatment that appears identical to the actual treatment but lacks the active substance.

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Characteristics of Experimental Studies

answer

With experiments, researchers may find cause and effect based on the independent and dependent variables.

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double-blind studies

answer

studies in which neither the participants nor the researchers administering the treatment know who has been assigned to the experimental or control group.

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Single-Blind studies

answer

studies in which participants do not know the experimental condition (group) to which they have been assigned.

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Effect Size

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measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the magnitude of an experimental effect.

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T-Test

answer

Statistic that compares two means to see whether they could come from the same population.

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Random Assignment

answer

the method used to assign participants to different research conditions guarantees that each person has the same chance of being in one groubp as another

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___ allow open-ended responses whereas ____ allow only closed-ended responses.

answer

Interviews Questionnaires

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Experimenter expectancy effects

answer

result that occurs when the behavior of the participants is influences by the experimenter's knowledge of who is in the control group and who is in the experimental group.

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Which of the following bet describes the function of a scientific theory----

answer

*It generates expectations that can be tested systematically *It must be tied to real evidence. *It organizes observations

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These types of designs usually occur during the exploratory phase of research in which the researcher is looking for meaningful patterns that might lead to predictions last on; it does not involve testing a hypothesis. This is a _____ research design.

answer

descriptive

question

A researcher is interested in studying aggression. He bring participants into a laboratory and places them in a situation that elicits aggressive behavior. He video tapes their responses and trained coders view the take and code the behaviors they see. This scenario best illustrates ____ measures.

answer

behavioral

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The results of a ___ study may be based on studying one individual and cannot be easily generalization to the general population.

answer

case

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Which of the following is true of the research technique of surveys and questionnaires?

answer

**They are reliant on self-report **This technique is most useful when a researcher is unable to manipulate variables.

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A ____ is a statement that affects events to cause the prediction to come true.

answer

self-fulfilling prophesy

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Which of the following are drawbacks of naturalistic observation?

answer

study conditions cannot be controlled. cause and effect relationships cannot be demonstrated.

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Which of the following is NOT an advantage of behavioral measures?

answer

People are less likely to modify their behavior despite knowing they are being observed.

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Which of the following is NOT a way pseudoscience differs from science?

answer

It deals with issues of greater concern to the general public.

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If you wished to compare the impact of extensive musical training versus no musical training on accurate auditory perception, which design would be best?

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Quasi-experimental

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The advantage of this research method is that it tell us whether all the research on a topic has or had not led to consistent findings and what the size of that effect is. What is it?

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Meta-analysis

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Chromosome

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Cellular structure that holds our genetic information in threadlike strands of DNA. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell of the body, except red blood cells, which do not have nuclei.

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Genome

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All of the genetic information contained in our DNA Small segments of DNA that contain information for producing proteins.

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Dominant Genes

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Show their effect even if there is only one copy of that gene in the pair. So if you have one brown eye allele and one blue eye allele, chances are you will have brown eyes.

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Monogentic Transmission

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Hereditary passing on of traits determined by a single gene. Example: Huntington's

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Polygenic Transmission

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The process by which many genes interact to create a single characteristic. Example: Skin color, personality, height, and weight

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Heritability

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the extent to which a characteristic is influences by genetics.

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Fraternal Twins

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Develop from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm, as are any two siblings born at separate times. Genetically speaking, fraternal twins are no more alike or different than are nontwin brothers and sisters.

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Identical Twins

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Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two independent cells. As a result, identical twins develop from two embryos with identical genetic information.

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Twin-adoption studies

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The best way to untangle the effects of genetics and environment is to study twins who are adopted.

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Gene-by-environment interaction research

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method of studying heritability by comparing genetic markers; allows researchers to assess how genetic differences interact with environment to produce certain behaviors in some people but not in others.

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Epignetics

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The study of changes in the way genes are expressed--that is, are activated or deactivated--without changing the sequence of DNA. Research has shown that particular diets can actually affect gene expressions by turning on switches that attach to DNA and turn the gene on or off. This finding is a compelling example of research in EPIGENETICS.

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Human nervous system

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two main parts central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

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Brain and spinal cord

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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all the other never cells in the body. Includes the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

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Somatic Nervous System

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Transmits sensory information to the brain and spinal cord and from the brain and spinal cord to the skeletal muscles.

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

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Serves the involuntary systems of the body, such as the internal organs and glands.

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Parasympathetic nervous system

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relaxes or returns the body to a less active, restful state. Main function is to control actions that restore the body.

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Sympathetic Nervous System

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Branch of the autonomic nervous system that activates bodily systems in times of emergency

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

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Branch of the autonomic nervous system that usually relaxes or returns the body to a less active, restful state.

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Fight-or-flight

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The sympathetic branch of the ANS is responsible for what the physiologist Walter Cannon (1939) labeled fight-or-flight response that is, it activates bodily systems in the times of emergency.

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Glial Cells

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Central Nervous System cells that provide structural support, promote efficient communication between neurons, and serve as scavengers, removing cellular debris.

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Neurons

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The cells that process and transmit information in the nervous system

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Over the last 125 years, three major principles of neuroscience have emerged concerning the neuron and how it communicates with other neurons.

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1. Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. All the major structures of the brain are composed of neurons. 2. Information travels within a neuron in the form of an electrical signal by action potentials. 3. Information is transmitted between neurons by means of chemicals called neurotransmitters.

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Soma

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the cell body of the neuron

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Axon

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long projection that extends from a neuron's soma; it transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron and stimulates the release of neurotransmitters.

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Structure of the neuron

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When an electrical impulse is received at the dendrites, it moves through the axon to the terminal buttons. There it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, which carry the impulse across the synapse to the dendrites of the receiving neuron.

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Dendrites

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Fingerlike projections from a neuron's soma that receive incoming messages from other neurons.

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Myelin Sheath

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Fatty substance wrapped around some axons, which insulates the axon, making the nerve impulse travel more efficiently.

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Synapse

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The junction between an axon and the adjacent neuron, where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.

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Terminal buttons

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little knobs at the end of the axon that contain tiny sacs of neurotransmitters.

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Sensory Neurons

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Nerve cells that receive incoming sensory information from the sense organs (eye, ear, skin, tongue, nose)

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Motor Neurons

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Nerve Cells that carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the body.

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Mirror Neurons

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Nerve cells that are active when we observe others performing an action as well as when we are performing the same action.

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Interneurons

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Neurons that communicate only with other neurons

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action potential

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the impulse of positive charge that runs down an axon. The electrical charge within the axon changes briefly from: negatively to positively charged.

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Ions

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Chemically charged particles that predominate in bodily fluids; found both inside and outside cells.

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The function of glial cells is to ---

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hold neurons in place and provide them with nourishment.

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___ are cells that convey information within the nervous system.

answer

Neurons

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A neurotransmitter is absorbed by receptor sites located on the ____.

answer

dendrite

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Which of the following ions are involved in neural transmission?

answer

Chlorine Potassium Sodium

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Neurons are nerve cells made up of ___

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one axon, multiple dendrites, and terminal buttons

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Resting Potential

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the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the axon when the neuron is as rest.

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Refractory Period

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The span of time, after an action potential has been generated, when the neuron cannot generate an action potential.

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All-or-none principle

answer

the idea that once the threshold has been crossed, either an action potential fires or it does not.

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Synaptic Vesicles

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Tiny sacs in the terminal buttons that contain neurotransmitters

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Enzymatic degradation

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a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapse in which enzymes specific for that neurotransmitter bind with the neurotransmitter and destroy it.

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Reuptake

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a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapsem in which excess neurotransmitter is returned to the sending, or presynaptic, neuron for storage in vesicles and future use.

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Graded potentials

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small changes in membrane potential that by themselves are insufficient to trigger an action potential.

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Neurotransmitters and their functions

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neurotransmitters can be excitatory, increasing the likelihood of an action potential, or inhibitory, decreasing the likelihood of an action potential.

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Acetylcholine (ACh)

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controls muscle movement and plays a role in mental processes such as learning, memory, attention, sleeping, and dreaming, and slows ANS activity.

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Dopamine

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Involved in voluntarily controlling your muscles and it released during feelings or pleasure or reward. released in response to behaviors that feel good or are rewarding to the person.

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At resting state, the electrical charge difference between the inside and outside of the axon is ___ mV

answer

-70

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Action potentials trigger the release of neurotransmitters when they reach the __

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terminal button

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Postsynaptic

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Neurotransmitters bind with receptors in the receiving, or __, neuron.

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____ messages reduce the likelihood of an action potential in a neighboring neuron.

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Inhibitory

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excitatory

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___ neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of action potential.

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Glutamate is an ___ neurotransmitter.

answer

excitatory

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Which of the following neurotransmitters is exclusively inhibitory?

answer

GABA

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epinephrine

answer

also known as adrenaline, a neurotransmitter that arouses bodily systems (Such as increasing heart rate) Helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight Increases ANS activity

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Serotonin

answer

plays a role in a wide range of behaviors, including dreaming and controlling emotional states such as anger, anxiety, and depression. People who are generally anxious and/or depressed often have low levels of serotonin.

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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

answer

major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that tells postsynaptic neurons NOT to fire; it slows CNS activity and is necessary to regulate and control neural activity. Mimics the affects of alcohol

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Glutamate

answer

The brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter, is important in learning, memory, neural processing, and brain development. Glutamate facilitates grown and change in neurons and the migration of neurons to different sites in the brain, all of which are basic processes of early brain development. Increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire

question

Three major regions of the brain, in order from earliest to develop to newest

answer

Hindbrain The midbrain The forebrain

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Hindbrain

answer

The oldest brain region directly connected to the spinal cord. Three main parts: Medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum

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Medulla

answer

part of the hindbrain the extends from the spinal cord. It regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also is involved in various kinds of reflexes, such as coughing, swallowing, sneezing, and vomiting.

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Pons

answer

Means "bridge," and the pons indeed serves as a bridge between lower brain regions and higher midbrain and forebrain activity.

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Reflexes

answer

inborn and involuntary behaviors--such as coughing, swallowing, sneezing, or vomiting--that are elicited by very specific stimuli.

question

Cerebellum

answer

"little brain" contains more neurons than any other single part of the brain. It is responsible for body movement, balance, coordination, and fine motor skills like typing and piano playing. The cerebellum is also important in cognitive activities such as learning and language. Located in the hindbrain.

question

Cerebral Hemispheres

answer

The human cerebrum is divided into two equal hemispheres. Although they look similar, the hemispheres differ in shape, size, and function.

question

Aphasia

answer

Deficit in the ability to speak or comprehend language

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Broca's Area

answer

Area in the left frontal lobe responsible for the ability to produce speech.

question

Which two neurotransmitters have energizing or arousing properties and are produced by the adrenal glands and the brain?

answer

Epinephrine Norepinephrine

question

___ tends not to affect mental states whereas ___ does increase mental arousal and alertness.

answer

epinephrine; norepinephrine

question

Electroencephalography (EEG)

answer

A method for measuring brain activity in which the electrical activity of the brain is recorded from electrodes places on a person's scalp.

question

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

answer

Brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce detailed images of the structure of the brain and other soft tissues.

question

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

answer

brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce detailed three dimensional images of activity (and oxygen) in areas of the brain and other soft tissue. Drawback-It does not tell where activation occurs in response to a particular task.

question

Hypothalamus

answer

a limbic structure; the master regulator of almost all major drives and motives we have, such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior; also controls the pituitary gland.

question

Hippocampus

answer

a limbic structure that wraps itself around the thalamus; plays a vital role in learning and memory. **taxi drivers have to know more about the spatial layout of the cities they drive in than do bus drivers who follow the same route everyday.

question

Amygdala

answer

small, almond-shaped structure located directly in front of the hippocampus; has connections with many important brain regions and is important for processing emotional information especially that related to fear.

question

Alleles

answer

different forms of gene. Individuals inherit one from each parent.

question

behavioral genetics

answer

the scientific study of the role of heredity in behavior

question

Recessive Genes

answer

genes that show their effects only when both alleles are the same

question

Reticular Formation

answer

is involved in falling asleep and waking up is located in both the hindbrain and midbrain

question

This brain structure is important for vigilance. What is it?

answer

Reticular Formation

question

Which of the following structures is in the forebrain?

answer

Thalamus

question

Brain structures that are found on both sides of the brain are ____

answer

bilateral

question

Cingulate Gyrus

answer

beltlike structure in the middle of the brain. Portions of the cingulate gyrus, in particular the front part, play an important role in attention and cognitive control.

question

Basal Genglia

answer

Collection of structures surrounding the thalamus involved in voluntary motor control. Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases affect the function of the basal genglia

question

Cerebral Lobes

answer

The brain is composed of four large areas-Lobes, frontal , temporal, parietal, and occipital

question

Frontal Lobes

answer

primary motor cortex descending from the top of the head toward the center of the brain, Carries out many important functions, including attention, holding things in mind while we solve problems, planning abstract thiking, control of impulses, creativity, and social awareness

question

Parietal Lobes

answer

make up the top and rear sections of the brain, play an important role in the sensation and perception of touch. The frontmost portion of the parietal lobes is the somatosensory cortex.

question

The ___ is a forebrain structure that receives inputs from the ears, eyes, skin, or taste buds and relays sensory information to the part of the cerebral cortex most involved in processing that specific kind of sensory information.

answer

Thalamus

question

The ___ system includes the amygdala and hippocampus, and has been linked to memory and fear.

answer

limbic

question

Offspring share 50% of their genes with each biological parent and none with adoptive parents. Yet they share most of their environment with their adolptive parents and almost none with their biological parents. This fact alone is the logic behind ___ studies.

answer

Adoption

question

Cerebral Cortex

answer

The ____ is the thin outer layer of the cerebrum, in which much of human thought, planning, perception, and consciousness takes place.

question

The ___ is each of the larger halves of the brain that are covered with convolutions, or folds.

answer

Cerebrum

question

The process of developing new neurons is called ____

answer

neurogenesis

question

Auditory Cortex

answer

Lives in the temporal lobes *Sound information arrives from the thalamus for processing. Here, we "hear" our mother's voice, a symphony, and approaching car, or any other sound.

question

Occipital Lobes

answer

Occupy the rear of the brain. The optic nerve travels from the eye to the thalamus and then to the occipital lobes--specifically, to the primary visual cortex.

question

Primary Visual Cortex

answer

Where information is process in the visual cortex; it is here we "see" and "imagine." Neuroscientists have discovered that different neurons in the visual cortex are activated when we see horizontal lines, diagonal lines, and vertical lines.

question

Insula

answer

Small structure that resides deep inside the cerebrum, in the area that separates the temporal lobe from the parietal love. The insula is active in the perception of bodily sensations, emotional states, empathy, and addictive behavior.

question

Left Cerebral Hempispheres

answer

Processes information in a more focused and analytic manner

question

Right Cerebral Hemispheres

answer

Integrates information in a more holistic, or broader, manner, insights and solutions to ideas are more likely to occur in the right hemisphere

question

Corpus Callosum

answer

Thick band of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, provides a channel for extensive communication between hemispheres in both logical and creative tasks.

question

Wernicke's Area

answer

An area deep in the left temporal lobe responsible for the ability to speak in meaningful sentences and to comprehend the meaning of speech.

question

Visual Field and the Brain

answer

Information from the two visual fields is processed in the opposite side of the brain--that is, images from the right visual field stimulate the left retina. From the retina the optic nerves cross at the optic chiasm and project to the visual cortex in the occipital lobes.

question

Neuroplasticity

answer

the brain's ability to adopt new functions, reorganize itself, or make new neural connections throughout life, as a function of experience.

question

Neurogenesis

answer

the development of neurons

question

Synaptogenesis

answer

the formation of entirely new synapses or connections with other neurons.

question

Arborization

answer

the growth and formation of new dendrites.

question

Event-related potential (ERP)

answer

A special technique that extracts electrical activity from raw EEG data to measure cognitive processes.

question

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

answer

Measures blood flow to brain areas in the active brain. From these measurements researchers and doctors can determine which brain areas are active during certain situations. Involves injecting the patient with a harmless radioactive form of oxygen and then uses scanners and computers to create images of brain regions using that oxygen during a task. Drawback is the use of radioactive materials in this technique means it is not risk free.

question

Endocrine System

answer

System of glans that secrete and regulate hormones in the body.

question

Hormones

answer

Hormones, travel through the bloodstream to tissues and organs all over the body and regulate body functions. Hormones also play a crucial role in regulating metabolism, growth, reproduction, mood, and other processes.

question

Pituitary Gland

answer

The master gland of the body, because it secretes hormones that control the release of hormones from glands elsewhere in the body.

question

Pancreas

answer

Releases hormones, including insulin, that play a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels.

question

Sex Glands (ovaries and testes)

answer

release sex hormones that lead to development of sex characteristics (such as body hair and breast development), sex drive, and other aspects of sexual maturation.

question

Adrenal Glands

answer

Sit atop the kidneys, release hormones in response to stress and emotions. Help regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar.

question

Catecholamines

answer

chemicals released from the adrenal glands that function as hormones and as neurotransmitters to control ANS activation.

question

Which of the following is NOT a principle of behavioral genetics?

answer

Heritable traits make it more likely for a species to survive and successfully reproduce.

question

The two major branches of the nervous system are the central and peripheral. The peripheral nervous system is further divided into two divisions, the autonomic and the somatic. The sympathetic nervous system is one part of the _____ division of the nervous systems.

answer

autonomic

question

Principles of behavioral genetics

answer

*The relationship between specific genes and behavior is complex. *Specific behaviors arise from dozens or hundreds of genes. *The environment influences how and when genes affect behavior.

question

Genetic markers represent

answer

differences in the length of DNA sequences

question

Which are parts of the peripheral nervous system

answer

*somatic *parasympatheic nervous system *Sympathetic nervous system *autonomic

question

Once released into the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters may

answer

*be reabsorbed by the terminal button *be inactivated by enzymes *activate a receptor site

question

Different parts of the cortex are responsible for different functions. This is called cortical _____

answer

localization

question

People with ____ disease have problems focused in the midbrain.

answer

Parkinson's

question

When at rest, the inside of the neuron is ____ charged relative to the outside.

answer

negatively

question

____ structures regulate breathing, heart rte, arousal, and other functions necessary for survival.

answer

hindbrain

question

What do the structures of the forebrain do?

answer

Control cognitive, sensory, and motor function and regulate temperature, eating, sleeping, reproductive functions, and the display of emotions.

question

The main function of the ____ nervous system is to activate the body. It is part of the ___ nervous system.

answer

sympathetic/autonomic

question

Which of the following best describes the concept of voltage-dependent channels?

answer

These channels or passages will only open with certain conditions are met.

question

The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon is called ___.

answer

propagation

question

Electrical impulses called ___ ____ cause neurons to fire

answer

action potentials

question

___ is a hormone which is responsible for maintaining the activation of bodily systems during prolonged stress.

answer

Cortisol

question

Summarize the electrical changes in the neuron from resting to action potential to refractory period and back to resting state

answer

1. Resting potential is -70mV 2. Id an incoming impulse causes sufficient depolarization, voltage-dependent sodium channels open and sodium ions flood into the neurons. 3. The influx of positively charges sodium ions quickly raises the membrane potential to +40 mV. This surge in positive charge inside the cell is action potential. 4. When the membrane potential reaches +40mV, the sodium channels close and potassium channels open. The outward flow of positively charged potassium ions restores the negative charge inside the cell.

question

When a neuron becomes ____, an action potential is fired.

answer

depolarized

question

The ____ gland sits in the neck region and releases hormones that control the rate of metabolism.

answer

thyroid

question

If you touched a sharp object, ___ in the spinal cord would you receive pain information from sensory neurons in your fingers and communicate it to motor neurons in the muscles of your arm so that you could pull your hand away.

answer

interneurons

question

Decreased levels of which neurotransmitter have been implicated in Alzheimer's disease?

answer

ACh

question

How do the brains of various mammal differ?

answer

The relative size of brain structures differs among mammals.

question

The brain compensates for deficits in one sensory modality be reorganizing and rewiring unused regions to take on new functions.

answer

True

question

EEG is superior to other brain imaging techniques in showing ___ brain activity occurs but not ___ it occurred.

answer

When/Where

question

Different parts of the ___ control the eye muscles process auditory and visual information, and initiate voluntary movement of the body.

answer

midbrain

question

A war veteran had his corpus callosum cut. If asked to stare at a spot on a screen, what do you predict will happen is a picture of an object was show to the left of the spot? The patient could _____.

answer

pick the object out of a group of hidden objects using his left hand, but cannot identify it verbally.

question

Channels or passages that will only open when certain electrical conditions are met are called ___ ___ channels.

answer

voltage dependent

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