Psych 101 Ch. 4 & 5
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stream of consciousness
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a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings
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consciousness
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divided into two parts: awareness- awareness of the self thoughts about one's experiences. In addition to the information we receive from the world we have private experiences that surround this information. arousal- the psychological state of being engaged with the environment
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anterior cingulate
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an area of the brain associated with will
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prefrontal cortex
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appears to be especially involved in the ways awareness goes beyond the input of sensory information
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theory of mind
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refers to individuals understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences
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false belief task
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associated with academic achievement and social competence
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Baren-Cohen
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suggest that autistic individuals lack the Theory of Mind mechanism which would explain their social defect
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controlled processes
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the most alert state of human consciousness during which the individual actively focuses their efforts on achieving goals
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The 5 stages that children progress though that U.S., Germany, and Australia researchers found
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1) Diverse Desires- different likes and wants 2) Diverse Beliefs- different people can hold different beliefs about the same thing when both opinions are potentially true 3) Knowledge Access- seeing leads to know and not seeing leads to ignorance 4) False Beliefs- People can have invalid beliefs 5) Hidden Emotions- People may choose to hide what they feel by altering behavior and expressions
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automatic processes
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states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with ongoing activities
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daydreaming
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lies between active consciousness and dreaming while asleep
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altered states of consciousness
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can range from losing one's sense of self-consciousness to hallucinating. Can be produced by drugs, trauma, fever, etc.
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unconscious thought
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Freud said was a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts beyond conscious awareness
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sleep
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natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness
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biological rhythms
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periodic physiological fluctuations in the body such as rise and fall of hormones and accelerated and decelerated cycles of brain activity, etc.
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circadian rhythms
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daily behavioral or physiological cycles such as the sleep/wake cycle, body temp., etc.
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suprachiasmatic nucleus
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a small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark
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Stage 1 sleep
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drowsy sleep: a person may experience sudden muscle movements. Individuals in this stage aree characterized by theta waves.
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Stage 2 sleep
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Muscle activity decreases and the person is no longer consciously aware of the environment. Theta waves continue but also include sleep spindles
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Stage 3 and 4 sleep
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Characterized by delta waves
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REM sleep
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stage of sleep where dreams occur
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Manifest content
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a dreams surface content, which contains dream symbols that disguise the dream's true meaning
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Latent content
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the dreams hidden content- its true meaning
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Cognitive Theory of Dreaming
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proposes that we can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts we use in studying the waking mind.
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activation-synthesis theory
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dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain.
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psychological dependence
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strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons
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depressants
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slow down the mental and physical activity
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barbiturates
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depressant drugs that decrease central nervous system activity. Most often used in suicide attempts.
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tranquilizers
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depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation.
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opiates
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depress the central nervous system's activity. Common drugs in this category are morphine and heroin
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stimulants
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increase the central nervous system's activity. Most common are caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine
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hallucinogens
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modify a person's perceptual experiences and produce images that are not real
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hypnosis
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an altered state of consciousness in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions
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divided consciousness view of hypnosis
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proposed that hypnosis involves a special state of consciousness in which consciousness is split into separate components.
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social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis
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a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way he or she believes that a hypnotized person should behave
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meditation
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involves attaining a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry
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learning
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relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
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behaviorism
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theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors
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associative learning
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occurs when we make a connection, or an association between two events
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observational learning
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takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior
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classical conditioning
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process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
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unconditioned stimulus
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produces a response without prior learning
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unconditioned response
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an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
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conditioned stimulus
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a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus
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conditioned response
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learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurss after conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing.
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acquisition
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the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired
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generalization in classical conditioning
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the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response
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discrimination in classical conditioning
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the process of learning to respond to a certain stimuli and not others.
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extinction
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the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent
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spontaneous recovery
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the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning
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counterconditioning
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a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
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aversive conditioning
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a form of treatment that involves repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
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habituation
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refers to the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
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operant conditioning
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a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behaiviors occurrence
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law of effect
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states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by frustrating outcomes are weakened
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shaping
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refers to rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior
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reinforcement
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the process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again
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positive reinforcement
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the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the presentation of something that increases the likelihood the behavior will be repeated
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negative reinforcement
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the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of something
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avoidance learning
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occurs when the organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided
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primary reinforcer
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innately satisfying; does not require any learning on the organisms part to make it pleasurable
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secondary reinforcer
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acquires its positive value through an organisms experience; is a learned or conditioned reinforcer
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generalization in opperent conditioning
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performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation
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discrimination in opperent conditioning
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responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced
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extinction in opperent conditioning
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occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency
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schedules of reinforcement
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specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
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punishment
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a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur
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positive punishment
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behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of a stimulus
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negative punishment
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behavior decreases when a stimulus is removed
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applied behavior analysis
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the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
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latent learning
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unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
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insight learning
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form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into our understanding of a problems solution
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preparedness
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the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
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Tamara normally feeds her cat canned cat food. She noticed that ever time she uses her electric can opener, her cat comes to the kitchen. What is the conditioned stimulus?
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the sound of the electric can opener
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Robert had a serious car accident while Mozart was playing on his stereo. Now, every time Robert hears a Mozart song, he feels frightened and panicked. What is the unconditioned stimulus?
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the car accident
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Robert developed a conditioned response of fear and anxiety to hearing music by Mozart. If he were to have the same response to any classical music it would be called,
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generalization
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When a child hears a loud noise, he cries. The family's dog often barks loudly. Each time the child sees the dog he cries. What is the conditioned response?
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the crying
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Juan developed a fear of dogs after being attacked by one. His counselor helped him to overcome this fear by teaching him to relax in the presence of dogs. Eventually, he was no longer afraid of dogs. Which of the following processes occurred?
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counterconditioning
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You have trained your dog to bark on command by giving her rawhides when she is successful. However, you quit giving her the rawhides when she barks and you find that eventually she will not bark on command. What has occurred?
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extinction
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Gavin recently went deep sea fishing with some friends. Unfortunately, Gavin was extremely seasick the entire time he was on the boat, and now when he sees boats, he feels queasy. In this situation, the conditioned stimulus is the
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boat
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Bryn adopted her cat, Minnie, from the local shelter. She feeds Minnie dry food, but the previous owner fed her canned food. Every time Bryn opens her refrigerator, her new cat comes running. Bryn never gives Minnie food after she opens the refrigerator, however, so eventually Minnie stops showing up. Once in awhile, though, Minnie will come running when Bryn opens the refrigerator, as if food is forthcoming. This reappearance of Minnie's old behavior is called
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spontaneous recovery
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Irinia's dog loves to go for walks, and she always puts a leash on him when they go out. The dog used to wag his tail as soon as they got outside, but now he wags his tail when she picks up the leash. The period of time in which the dog learned to associate the leash with walks is called
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acquisition
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After Meg eats hamburger for the first time, she gets sick and vomits. The next time someone asks Meg if she wants a hamburger, she feels so nauseated she actually vomits. Meg has a
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conditioned taste aversion
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A child sees her lunch box and then feels hunger pains. In this example, the hunger pains are a(n)
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conditioned response
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Alika is allergic to grass. Whenever he would sit on the grass, his skin would break out in hives that made him feel very itchy. Now, if you just say the word grass to him he starts to feel itchy. In this this example grass is a(n)
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conditioned response
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Jillian is a stay at home mother whom watches a lot of daytime television. During the day, Charmin toilet paper runs lots of television ads. Jillian always smiles when she sees these ads because they have so many cute babies on them. When Jillian is shopping at her local market, she finds herself smiling when she is in the toilet paper section, especially when she is near the Charmin toilet paper. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the
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cute babies
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Laura watched a public service announcement to curb smoking in which a young boy describes how his mother died from lung cancer after smoking twenty years. In this example the unconditioned response would be
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sadness regarding a mother's death
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Dogs are often used in airports to detect explosives materials and/or narcotics. Their trainers teach them to smell out a certain substance by rewarding them with treats for correctly identifying a substance. In what type of learning are the dogs engaged?
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operant conditioning
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When a teenager gets poor grades, his father takes away his cell phone. This consequence is a
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negative punishment
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A supervisor comes into the workplace to check on her employees every hour and a half. An observer notices that the workers increase their work behavior about 10 minutes before the supervisor arrives and then decrease their work after she leaves. What type of reinforcement schedule are the workers on?
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a fixed-interval schedule
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Horatio's mother has been nagging him for weeks to clean the garage. When he does so, his mother's nagging ceases. When she stops nagging, Horatio experiences
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negative reinforcement
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John lost his wallet. He hopes it is somewhere in his bedroom. He has searched for it but the room is so messy he hasn't found it and can't be sure it is there. If John stops leaving his room in a mess in the future, then losing his wallet has functioned as a
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negative punishment
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Jake is trying to teach his dog Peach how to roll over. He first gives Peach a treat whenever Peach sits. Next, he no longer rewards Peach for sitting but rather gives Peach a treat when the dog actually lies down. Finally, Jake rewards Peach only when the dog rolls over. Jake is using____ to train Peach to roll over.
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shaping
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A bird will learn very quickly to tap a lever if it is reinforced with birdseed for doing so. Birdseed is an effective reward because it is a
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primary reinforcer
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Bob Boss rewards his telemarketers with $5 every time they make a phone call. What type of reinforcement is Bob using?
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continuous reinforcement
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Julie works at a factory that produces toy clowns. As the toy clowns come down the assembly line it is Julie's job
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