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Cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge in the mind.

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Information-processing theory

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sensory register

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component of the memory system that incoming information meets is the

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The first Component of the memory system in which information is received and held for very short periods of time (couple of seconds at most). Sensory registers receive large amounts of information from each of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste). If nothing happens to information, it is rapidly lost.

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Sensory register

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Information that is to be remembered must first reach a person's senses, then be attended to and transferred from the sensory register to the working memory and then be processed again for transfer to long-term memory.

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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

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A person's interpretation of stimuli.

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Perception

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Perception of stimuli is not as straightforward as reception of stimuli. Instead, it involves mental interpretation that is influenced by our mental state, past experience, knowledge, motivations, and many other factors.

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Perception of stimuli vs reception of stimuli

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Active focus on certain stimuli to the exclusion of others.

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Attention

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when people listen intently to an interesting speaker, they are unaware of minor body sensations (such as itches or hunger) and other sounds or sights. An experienced speaker knows that when the audience looks restless, its attention is no longer focused on the lecture but might be turning toward considerations of lunch or other activities; it is time to recapture the listeners' attention. Another way to gain attention is to increase the emotional content of material.

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Example of Attention

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The second component of memory (storage system) in which limited amounts of information can be stored for a few seconds (12 sec). It is the part of memory in which information that is currently being thought about is stored (The thoughts we are conscious of having at any given moment). Is believed to have a capacity of five to nine bits of information That is, we can think about only five to nine distinct things at a time. Use familiar patterns to organize information.

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Short-term or working memory

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It is active and it is where the mind operates on information, organizes it for storage or discarding, and connects it to other information. It is so important that many researchers consider working memory capacity to be essentially the same as intelligence

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What is the importance of working memory

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Mental repetition of information, which can improve its retention. Is one way to hold information in working memory.;(say things over and over)

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Rehearsal

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The components of memory in which large amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time. We do not live long enough to fill up our long-term memory. People store not only information but also learning strategies in long-term memory for easy access.

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Long-term memory

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episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory

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long-term memory is divided into at least three parts:

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A part of long-term memory that stores images of our personal experience. A mental movie of things we saw or heard.

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Episodic memory

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When you remember past events such as what you had for dinner last night or what happened at your high school prom, you are recalling information stored in your long-term episodic memory.

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Example of Episodic memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores facts and general knowledge that we know.

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Semantic memory

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concepts, principles, or rules and how to use them; and our problem-solving skills and learning strategies. Most learning from class lessons is retained in semantic memory.

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Example of Semantic memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores information about how to do things. "knowing how" in contrast to "knowing that."

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Procedural memory

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abilities to drive, type, and ride a bicycle

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Example of Procedural memory

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Important events that are fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory.

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Flashbulb memory

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people who happened to be eating breakfast at the moment they first heard about the attack on the World Trade Center may well remember that particular meal (and other trivial aspects of the setting) forever. The reason for this is that the unforgettable event of that moment gives us access to the episodic (space and time) memories relating to what would usually be forgotten. details.

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Example Flashbulb memory

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Mental networks of related concepts that influence understanding of new information.

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Schemata

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A schema is like an outline, with different concepts or ideas grouped under larger categories. Various aspects of schemata may be related by series of propositions, or relationships. How one concept is related to another concepts in memory. One clear implication of schema theory is that new information that fits into a well-developed schema is retained far more readily than is information that does not fit into a schema.

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Examples of schematas

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Explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives. The more you attend to the details of a stimulus, the more mental processing you must do and the more likely you are to remember it.

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Levels-of-processing theory

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Undergraduates look at yearbook pictures from Yale. Some of the students were told to classify the pictures as "male" or "female," and some were told to classify them as "very honest" or "less honest." The students who had to categorize the faces as "very honest" or "less honest" remembered them far better than did those who merely categorized them as "male" or "female." Presumably, the honesty raters had to do a much higher level of mental processing with the pictures than did the gender raters, and for this reason they remembered the faces better.

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Example of Levels-of-processing theory

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Theory suggesting that information coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than information coded in only one of those two ways (Paivio). This theory predicts that information represented both visually and verbally is recalled better than information held in only one format

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Dual code theory of memory

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you remember a face better if you also know a name, and you remember a name better if you can connect it to a face.

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Example of Dual code theory of memory

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Most forgetting occurs because information in working memory was never transferred to long-term memory. However, it can also occur because we have lost our access to information in long-term memory.

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What Causes People to Remember or Forget?

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Inhibition of recall of certain information by the presence of other information in memory. When information gets mixed up with, or pushed aside by other information. One form of interference occurs when people are prevented from mentally rehearsing newly learned information

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Interference

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people were asked the memorization of sets of three nonsense letters (such as FQB). Then were asked immediately to count backward by 3s from a three-digit number (e.g., 287, 284, 281, etc.) for up to 18 seconds. At the end of that time the subjects were asked to recall the letters. They had forgotten far more of them than had subjects who learned the letters and then simply waited for 18 seconds to repeat them. The reason for this is that the subjects who were told to count backward were deprived of the opportunity to rehearse the letters mentally to establish them in their working memories.

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Example of Interference

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Decreased ability to recall previously learned information, caused by learning of new somewhat similar information. It is the most important reason for forgetting

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Retroactive inhibition

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young students may have no trouble recognizing the letter b until they are taught the letter d. Because these letters are similar, students often confuse them. Learning the letter d thus interferes with the previously learned recognition of b. In the same way, a traveler might know how to get around in a particular airport but then lose that skill to some extent after visiting many similar airports.

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Example of Retroactive inhibition

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Retroactive inhibition

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Which phenomenon explains why we have trouble remembering frequently repeated episodes, such as what we had for dinner a week ago. Last night's dinner will be quickly forgotten because memories of dinners that come after it will interfere, unless something remarkable happens to clearly distinguish it from the dinners that will follow.

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Decreased ability to learn new information, caused by interference from existing knowledge. Sometimes previous knowledge interferes with learning later information.

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Proactive inhibition

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A classic case of proactive inhibition is that of a North American learning to drive on the left side of the road in England. It may be easier for a North American nondriver to learn to drive in England than for an experienced North American driver because the latter has so thoroughly learned to stay to the right—a potentially fatal error in England.

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Example of Proactive inhibition

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Increased ability to learn new information based on the presence of previously acquired information.

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Proactive facilitation

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learning Spanish first may help an English-speaking student later learn Italian, a similar language. Learning a second language can also help with an already established language. It is often the case. English-speaking students find that the study of Latin helps them understand their native language better.

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Example of Proactive facilitation

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Increased comprehension of previously learned information because of the acquisition of new information.

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Retroactive facilitation

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For another example, consider teaching. We often have the experience that learning to teach a subject helps us understand the subject better. Because later learning (e.g., learning to teach addition of fractions) increases our understanding of previously learned information (addition of fractions).

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Example of retroactive facilitation

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The tendency for items at the beginning of a list to be recalled more easily than other items. The tendency to learn the first items presented. We pay more attention and devote more mental effort to items presented first ( mental rehearsal )

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Primacy effect

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The tendency for items at the end of a list to be recalled more easily than other items. Based on the fact that little or no other information intervenes between the final items and the test.

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Recency effect

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A level of rapidity and ease such that tasks can be performed or skills utilized with little mental effort. Primarily gained through practice far beyond the amount needed to establish information or skills in long-term memory.

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Automaticity

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A soccer player knows after 10 minutes of instruction how to kick a ball, but the player practices this skill thousands of times until it becomes automatic. A chess player quickly learns the rules of chess but spends a lifetime learning to quickly recognize patterns that suggest winning moves. "the hands and feet of genius."

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Example of Automaticity

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Technique in which facts or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time. Allows for faster initial learning,

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Massed practice

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Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time. Best for retention, This is especially true of factual learning Long-term retention of all kinds of information and skills is greatly enhanced by distributed practice. This is the primary purpose of homework: to provide practice on newly learned skills over an extended period of time to increase the chances that the skills will be retained.

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Distributed practice

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A learning process in which individuals physically carry out tasks.Everyone knows that we learn by doing.

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Enactment

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students learn much more from a lesson on drawing geometric solids (such as cubes and spheres) if they have an opportunity to draw some rather than simply watching you do so.

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Example of Enactment

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Learning of words (or facts expressed in words).

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Verbal learning

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students might be asked to learn lists of words or nonsense syllables.

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Example of Verbal learning

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paired-associate, serial, and free-recall tasks.

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Three types of verbal learning activities typically seen in the classroom have been identified and studied extensively

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Learning of items in linked pairs so that when one member of a pair is presented, the other can be recalled. involves learning to respond with one member of a pair when given the other member, usually from a list of pairs to be memorized. In typical experiments, the pairs are arbitrary (random).

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Paired-associate learning

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learning the state capitals, the names and dates of Civil War battles, the addition and multiplication tables, the atomic weights of the elements, and the spellings of words.

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Educational examples of paired-associate tasks

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Memorization of a series of items (lists) in a particular order. Memorization of the notes on the musical staff, the Pledge of Allegiance, the elements in atomic weight order, and poetry and songs are serial learning tasks.

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Serial learning

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Learning, memorizing of a list of items in any order. Recalling the names of the 50 states, types of reinforcements, kinds of poetic feet, and the organ systems in the body in any order.

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Free-recall learning

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Mental visualization of images to improve memory.One ancient method of enhancing memory by use of imagery is the creation of stories to weave together information For example, images from Greek myths and other sources have long been used to help people recall the constellations.

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Imagery

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Devices or strategies for aiding the memory.

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Mnemonics

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A mnemonic strategy for improving memory by using images to link pairs of items. Images work best if they are vivid and active,

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Keyword method

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A strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations. Used by the ancient Greeks employs imagery associated with a list of locations

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Loci method

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the student thinks of a very familiar set of locations, such as rooms in her own house, and then imagines each item on the list to be remembered in one specific location. Vivid or bizarre imagery is used to place the item in the location. Once the connections between the item and the room or other location are established, the learner can recall each place and its contents in order. The same locations can be mentally cleared and used to memorize a different list. However, they should always be used in the same order to ensure that all items on the list have been remembered.

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Example of Loci method

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A strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set of words or numbers. Another imagery method useful for serial learning in which a student memorizes a list of words that rhyme with the numbers 1 to 10. To use this method, the student creates mental images relating to items on the list to be learned with particular words.

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Pegword method

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in learning the order of the first 10 U.S. presidents, you might picture George Washington eating a bun (1) with his wooden teeth, John Adams tying his shoe (2), Thomas Jefferson hanging by his knees from a branch of a tree (3),

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Example of Pegword method

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Strategies for learning in which initial letters of items to be memorized are made into a more easily remembered word or phrase. Distance from the sun—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. My very educated monkey just served us nachos."

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Initial-letter strategies

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Memorization of facts or associations that might be essentially arbitrary. Such as the multiplication tables, the chemical symbols for the elements, words in foreign languages, or the names of bones and muscles in the human body. Involves associations that are essentially arbitrary.

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Rote learning

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Mental processing of new information that relates to previously learned knowledge. Is not arbitrary, and it relates to information or concepts learners already have. For example, if we learn that silver is an excellent conductor of electricity, this information relates to our existing information about silver and about electrical conductivity.

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Meaningful learning

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Learned information that could be applied to a wide range of situations but whose use is limited to restricted, often artificial, applications. Usually, inert knowledge consists of information or skills learned in school that we cannot apply in life. For example, you may know people who could pass an advanced French test but would be unable to communicate in Paris, or who can solve volume problems in math class but have no idea how much sand to order to fill a sandbox.

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Inert knowledge

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Theory stating that information is stored in long-term memory in schemata which provide a structure for making sense of new information. One important insight of schema theory is that meaningful learning requires the active involvement of the learner, who has a host of prior experiences and knowledge to bring to understanding and incorporating new information. What you learn from any experience depends in large part on the schema you apply to the experience.

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Schema theory

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One of the most important determinants of how much you can learn about something is how much you already know about it

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What determines learning about something?

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Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn ("thinking about thinking").Thinking skills and study skills

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Metacognition

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Methods for learning, studying, or solving problems.

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Metacognitive skills

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Learning strategies that call on students to ask themselves who, what, where, and how questions as they read material. (metacognitive skills)

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Self-questioning strategies

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A study strategy that requires decisions about what to write.

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Note-taking

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Perhaps the most effective study strategy is taking practice tests aligned with the real test to come. Test taking, especially when tests require constructed responses rather than multiple choice or fill-in-the-blank, causes test takers to engage in high-level processing of the content, thereby enhancing understanding and memory. Furthermore, the practice test reminds you what you know and do not know, so that you can focus your studying most efficiently. Working in a study group that makes up practice tests for each other can be particularly effective. (metacognitive skills)

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Practice Tests

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Writing brief statements that represent the main idea of the information being read.

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Summarizing

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Representing the main points of material in hierarchical format.

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Outlining

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Diagramming main ideas and the connections between them.

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Concept mapping

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A study strategy that has students preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review material.

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PQ4R method

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Activities and techniques that orient students to the material before reading or class presentation.

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Advance organizers

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Images, concepts, or narratives that compare new material to information students already understand.

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Analogies

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The process of connecting new material to information or ideas already in the learner's mind.

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Elaboration

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Atkinson-Shiffrin, Pavio, and Craik

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Information Processing theorists

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Atkinson-Shiffrin

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sensory register

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Atkinson-Shiffrin

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Short and long-term memory

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Anderson

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Schema Theory

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