question

Six most common elements

answer

CHONPS, Carbon hydrogen oxygen nitrogent phosphorus and sulfur

question

definition of catabolism

answer

breaking down of complex molecules to release energy

question

Definition of Anabolism

answer

is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units.

question

metabolism

answer

is comprised of both anabolism and catabolism

question

Anabolic cell growth is

answer

turning simple compounds into complex by anabolic processes

question

Anabolic cell growth is

answer

turning simple compounds into complex by anabolic processes

question

Energy used during anabolic process

answer

ATP

question

Thermodynamics

answer

study of energy by the calorie

question

Calorie

answer

heat needed to raise on ml of H2O 1 degree celcius

question

kilocalorie

answer

temp needed to raise 1000 ml of water one degree celcius

question

Two laws of thermodynamics

answer

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but changes forms. energy goes from more concentrated to less concentrated by ways of entropy.

question

1st law of thermodynamics

answer

energy cannot be created or destroyed but changes forms.

question

second law of thermodynamics

answer

energy goes from more concentrated to less concentrated

question

exergonic reaction

answer

reaction that releases energy spontaneous reaction

question

catalyzed

answer

reducing activation energy

question

catalyzation in biological systems is

answer

enzymes

question

ribosomes are

answer

RNA enzymes

question

Metabolism deals with

answer

enzymes by speeding up reactions

question

co-enzyme

answer

are organic molecules that are required by certain enzymes to carry out catalysis. They bind to the active site of the enzyme and participate in catalysis

question

co factors

answer

substance that needs to be present in addition to an enzyme for a certain reaction to take place.

question

non-competitive inhibitor

answer

binds to allosteric site and changes shape of active site

question

factors controlling enzymes

answer

substrate concentration, heat, ph, salt concentrations, heavy metals

question

temperature that enzymes work and work the best

answer

37 degrees centigrade and 40 degrees centigrade

question

Competitive inhibitor

answer

binds to active site and will not let the real substrate bind ex penicillin and peptidoglycan cell wall

question

v max of enzyme activity

answer

maximum velocity or rate of reaction due to enzyme activity

question

proteins structure composed of

answer

primary structure of petide bonds of amino acids, secondary structure of pleated sheet helical structure held by hydrogen bonds, tertiary structure give look of 3D view shape, quaternary structure consist of sub units for a 2 subunit protein

question

Active site of proteins with enzymes will on have this type of fit

answer

complimentry fit

question

Hydrogen bonding is broken by

answer

heat, salt, ph,substrates and heavy metals such as lead and mercury

question

Biological pathways allow enzymes to work together in

answer

chains, substrate 1 to enzyme 1 to substrate 2 to enzyme 2

question

Feedback inhibition

answer

enzyme product is materials for enzyme 2

question

last enzyme can effect first enzyme this way

answer

the last enzyme can turn of first enzyme by making an allosteric enzyme that allows substrate to be used somewhere else

question

oxidation

answer

oxidising material by a molecule losing an electron and losing hydrogen

question

Benefit to oxidation reaction in microbiology

answer

electron lost is gained by another molecule

question

Reduction reaction

answer

picking up of an electron and hydrogen and called redox reaction

question

Energy from oxidation reaction will get stored as

answer

high energy molecule ATP contains adinine and ribose

question

heterotrophs

answer

oxidase organic compounds of fats, proteins, sugars

question

lithotroph

answer

oxidise reduce forms of inorganic compounds for carbon such as iron oxidizing bacteria sulfure bacteria

question

photoautotroph

answer

convert light energy into chemical energy and use co2 as their carbon source

question

fermentation

answer

partial oxidation of organic compout with final electron acceptor being another organic compound

question

steps to fermentation

answer

ATP by production of glycolysis is split into 2 3 carbon chains to make 2 atp, its transfered to nad+ and reduced to NADH then is oxidised giving up H+ to pyruvate. THis is energy for lactic acid bacteria and yeast

question

glycolysis ?

answer

Glucose phosphoralates by addition of phosphate and HExokinase adds phosphate to Po4 molecule.

question

atpases

answer

will phosphoralate ADP and Make ATP and spin at a fast rate with the flow of hydrogen ions from outside to inside

question

glycolysis step 1

answer

1. addition of two phosphates to the 6 carbon molecule at the expense of two ATP- producing two ADP and creating 6 carbon sugar diphosphate.

question

glycolysis step 2

answer

The six carbon molecule with two phosphates is split into two three carbon molecule in a series of steps to pyruvate. The electrons are transferred to coenzyme NAD+ to form NADH and ATP is formed with 4 molecules of ATP formed. under aerobic conditions the pyruvate goes on to make more ATP and anaerobic to form lactic acid

question

common fermentation products are

answer

ethanol and lactic acid.

question

glycolysis is

answer

is a catabolic process in which a glucose molecule containing 6 carbons is split into 2 pyruvate molecules( 3 carbon molecule), Electron transfer from phosphate gives the coenyme Nad+ to turn it to NADH, during fermentation NAD+ is generated by the NADH giving up the electron and H+ to pyruvate to form the fermentation product.

question

lactic acid bacteria

answer

streptococcus, lactobacillus

question

yeast(ethanol) bacteria

answer

sacchromyces.

question

aerobic respiration

answer

complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H20 and final electron acceptor is 02

question

Glycolysis yields This

answer

2 pyruvate(3 carbon chains) 2 Atp and 2 NADH

question

Kreb cycle yields

answer

2 ATP

question

Kreb cycle

answer

A co2 and NADH is giving off from conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-COA. 4 Carbon molecule is starting material and binds with acetylcoa creating a six carbon molecule with COA carrier molecule given off. Now CO2 is given off creating a 5 carbon molecule and a electron is given off to creat NADH. Next second decarboxylation occurs with CO2 and NADH given off with A molecule of ATP and 4 carbon molecule is formed. THe four carbon molecule is further oxidising hydrogens to give off NADH AND FADH2.

question

How many cycles must kreb cycle perform to yield 4 ATP? why

answer

The kreb cycle must complete two rotations because the glucose molecule is breaking down two pyruvate and can only break down one molecule at a time making it have to cycle twice producing 4 atp

question

Properies of enzymes- structure

answer

most are proteins, they have a tertiary structure thatthat allows for the presence of an active site that binds substrates and possibly co-enzymes (by lock and key) -

question

enzymes binding structure results in

answer

enzyme-substrate complex, it reduces the activation energy of a reaction and alllow the reaction to occur very fast. Then releasing changed substrates which are now called products

question

Enzymes are reused Y or N?

answer

YES!!

question

Enzyme specificity

answer

specific as the reactions they perform and the substrates they will bind at the active site.

question

Can enzyme reactions reverse?

answer

if there is not much difference between the energy of the substrates compared to the energy of the products energy difference is not much.

question

enzyme names end in

answer

"ASE", protease example

question

co-enzymes

answer

A nonprotein and if it is organic then it is a loosely-bound cofactors termed coenzyme. Coenzymes are relatively small molecules compared to the protein part of the enzyme. The coenzymes make up a part of the active site, since without the coenzyme, the enzyme will not function. example coenzyme A (CoA) usually the electron acceptor

question

co-factor

answer

A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is bound (either tightly or loosely) to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity. flavin or heme are example

question

Decarboxylase involved in

answer

Kreb cycle enzymes catalyze the decarboxylation of amino acids, beta-keto acids and alpha-keto acids[1].
for example Pyruvate decarboxylase catalyzes the decarboxylation of Pyruvate

question

dehydrogenase

answer

is an enzyme that oxidizes a substrate by transferring one or more hydrides (H−) to an acceptor, usually NAD+/NADP+ or a flavin coenzyme such as FAD or FMN.

question

kinase

answer

type of enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from high-energy donor molecules, such as ATP, to specific substrates. The process is referred to as phosphorylation.

question

fermentation atp net gain

answer

2 ATP

question

NAD+ regenerated in fermentation by

answer

The NADH giving up the electron and H+ to pyruvate to form the fermentation product.

question

ATP formed in Aerobic respiration is

answer

formed by oxidative phosphorlation by glycolysis, krebs cycle, and ETS

question

Produced during kreb cycle

answer

2 NADH FADH2

question

role of oxygen in electron transport chain

answer

o2 is the final electron accept to form H2O as the electrons travel through the electron chain protons are pumped across the cell membrane.

question

ATPase

answer

catalyzes the formation of ATP by combining(phosphorylating) ADP(adenosine diphosphate) with inorganic phosphate ions to give ATP

question

glycolysis is found where

answer

cytoplasm

question

electron transport chain is found where

answer

Cell membrane

question

Glycolysis and kreb cycle is found in

answer

cytoplasm

question

eukaryotes have kreb cycle in

answer

mitochondria

question

light reaction needs

answer

light

question

dark reaction can occur

answer

w/ or w/o light at anytime

question

oxygenic photosynthesis

answer

non-cyclic phosporalation with oxygen produced.

question

algea and cyanobacteria are able to carry this out

answer

oxygenic photosynthesis

question

Nostoc

answer

rod shape organism in chain, hetercyst and fix nitrogen. and oxygen we breathe first strated from these bacteria

question

photosystem

answer

proton pumpes through membrane and electron actually goes back to the photosystem making it a cyclic system

question

Organism grows faster in fermentation or aerobic respiration

answer

Aerobic respiration is better due to energy produced of 34 atp produced compared to 2 atp

question

difference between aerobic respiration and anearobic respiration

answer

Aerobic respiration is the complete oxidation of glucose and final exctron acceptor is 02, 34 atp compared to 2 in fermenation. fermentation is partial oxydation of glucose with final electron acceptor being another organism. products of anearobic respiration are ethanol and lactic acid. they both share glycolysis

question

chemoautorophic bacteria

answer

inorganic energy sources. Most are bacteria or archaea that live in hostile environments such as deep sea vents

question

chemoautotrophic bacteria

answer

gain energ by oxidizing inorganic compounds. elements are Fe2, Sulfur, H2S.

question

sulfur-oxidizing bacteria

answer

important in symbiotic relationship the surlfure-oxidizing bacteria are found inisde and the worms bring h2s and o2 to provide energy for the worm

question

oxygenic photosynthesis bacteria

answer

cyanobacteria

question

anoxygenic photosynthesis bacteria

answer

purple bacteria, rhodosprillum, chormatum

question

light reaction of photosynthesis produces

answer

Oxygen and Atp

question

dark reactions need

answer

Require ATP, NADPH,

question

dark reactions produce

answer

glucose by calvin cycle

question

Dark reaction consist of

answer

Carbon Fixation, Reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-diphosphate (RuDP) regeneration

question

Fred griffith

answer

transforming principle, which is today known to be DNA,

question

fred griffith

answer

The smooth strain (S strain) had a polysaccharide capsule and was virulent when injected, causing pneumonia and killing mice in a day or two. The capsule is a slimy layer on the cells' surface that allows the bacteria to resist the human immune system. The rough strain (R strain) did not cause pneumonia when injected into mice (it was avirulent), since it lacked a capsule. When the virulent S strain was heated to kill it, and then injected into mice, it produced no ill effects. However, when dead S strain mixed with live R strain was injected into the mouse, the R/S mouse died.

question

Avery,mcleod, mcarty 1944

answer

dead s. pneunomae break it apart by lysis Avery and his colleagues showed that DNA was the key component of Griffith's experiment, in which mice are injected with dead bacteria of one strain and live bacteria of another, and develop an infection of the dead strain's type.

question

hershey chase

answer

use of bacteriophage In a first experiment, they labeled the DNA of phages with radioactive Phosphorus-32 (the element phosphorus is present in DNA but not present in any of the 20 amino acids from which proteins are made). They allowed the phages to infect E. coli, then removed the protein shells from the infected cells with a blender and separated the cells and viral coats by using a centrifuge. They found that the radioactive tracer was visible only in the pellet of bacterial cells and not in the supernatant containing the protein shells.

question

DNA is

answer

helical shaped and comped of deoxyribose sugar as strands and phosphate bons that keep these together.

question

semiconservative dna means

answer

Semiconservative replication would produce two copies that each contained one of the original strands and two new strands.

question

Dna polymerase bind at this site

answer

to DNA at origin site.

question

to replicate DNA

answer

Dna polymerase bind to dna at origin site, dna molecule fits right into the grooves becasue of its shape and hydrogen bonds break, strands are kept seperated by use of single strand binding proteins, Dna helicase(gyrase) unwind DNA ahead of Dna polymerase to get rid of tosional tension, Dna polmerase(primase) intitial start dna replication

question

Single strand binding proteins

answer

come into play by keeping strands seperated

question

DNA helicase(gyrase)

answer

unwind DNA ahead of Dna polymerase, actually cuts and flips dna and put its back together so dna is in straight line

question

What nucleotide bases are easiest to replicate

answer

Origins tend to be "AT-rich" (rich in adenine and thymine bases) to assist this process, because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair)—strands rich in these nucleotides are generally easier to separate due to the few=flexibilty/many=durability relationship found in hydrogen bonding.

question

DNA Polymerase

answer

"reads" an intact DNA strand as a template and uses it to synthesize the new strand. The newly-polymerized molecule is complementary to the template strand and identical to the template's original partner strand. Codes from a 5' end to 3' on leading strand

question

Dna replicates at this end

answer

DNA polymerase can add free nucleotides to only the 3’ end of the newly-forming strand.

question

Laggin strand

answer

gaps where dna is not copied 5' to 3'

question

how Laggins strand is copied

answer

Also needs to have 5' to 3' and Rna polymerase lays down RNA primer then DNA polymerase comes in to lay down dna from the RNA fragments. Then DNA ligase links the fragments together

question

Leading strand

answer

Leading strand of continues replication 5' to 3' direction

question

DNA ligase

answer

connect Po4 to hydroxyl when runs into new strand after exonuclease replaces RNA w/ DNA then 5' and 3' join together

question

exonuclease

answer

replaces RNA w/ DNA

question

Eukaryotic things have this to make DNA replication run faster

answer

multiple sites of Origin to allow DNA to be copied faster

question

Every replication the chromosomes

answer

get shorter

question

Telomerase

answer

repeats ("TTAGGG" in all vertebrates) to the 3' end of DNA strands in the telomere regions, which are found at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. adds telomere each time

question

telomere

answer

A telomere is a region of repetitive DNA at the end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from destruction.

question

cells that constantly divide

answer

sperm, white blood cells, cancer cells

question

Proof reading dna

answer

Makes a mistake and moves about 1,000 bases a second, WHen a mistake is made DNA polymerase goes backward to fix it.

question

Direction exonuclease activity runs and why

answer

3'to 5' to elimnate bases until it feels right and goes forward again

question

transcription

answer

copying

question

messenger rna

answer

working copies of a gene

question

Gene expression / protein syn

answer

dna, transcrption, messenger rna, translation, to protein

question

how to write out gene name

answer

Italisized or underlines with 3 letter designation

question

Gene

answer

sequence of DNA that codes for a protein or trait

question

DNA

answer

double stranded made of deoxyribose

question

RNA

answer

single stranded, nucliotide of ribose, No T's in RNA and replaced with U's, functional working copy

question

RNA polymerase

answer

makes transcription enzyme and looks for start of the gene

question

start of the gene

answer

promotor region

question

Single strand binding proteins

answer

Protein that binds to single-stranded DNA usually near the replication fork to stabilize the single strands.

question

sense strand

answer

dna of trait needed

question

Summary of Dna Replication at the fork

answer

enzymes unwind the parental double helix, proteins stabilize the unwound parental DNA, the leading strand is ynthesized continously by dna polymerase, the laggin strand is synthesized discountinously. and rna polymerase synthesizes sshort rna primer, which is then extended by dna polymerase and dna polymerase digest RNA primer and replace it with dna, dna ligase joins the discontinous fragments of laggin strand.

question

promotors are

answer

full of a's and t's and are promotor sequence that are 10 sequence from start and 35 from the start.

question

Sigma factors

answer

factors that enable rna polymerase to bind to specific promotor sites

question

transcription factors

answer

transcription factor is a protein that binds DNA at specific sites where it can regulate transcription.

question

cimplementary base pairing between sense strand of dna and resulting messenger RNA

answer

3' ATGCAT to 5' UACGUT

question

Primase

answer

adds a short piece of RNA called an RNA primer at which DNA can synthesize the 3 prime end

question

Rnase

answer

removes RNA primers and leaves a gap that is filled by DNA polymerase

question

Three processes in transcrption

answer

Initiation, Elongation, termination

question

intiation

answer

The RNA polymerase binds to promotr site and replicates at the 3' end

question

template strand

answer

serves as one copy for transcription and RNA has a complimentary strand to this

question

elongation

answer

forms a bubble and rna polymerase adds bases to 3' prime end of growin rna transcript and continues until it hits a terminator site

question

terminator site

answer

at this site rna polymerase and new rna transcript are released from dna, and can occur for self termination, and enzyme termination

question

self termination

answer

the rna sequence transcribe at the terminator makes it bind to hydrogens to itself making a loop structure pushes rna polymerase of dna

question

enzyme dependant determination

answer

a termination protein enzyme binds to terminator releasing rna polymerase

question

translation

answer

uses a mRNA to synthesize a protein, ribosomes read along a mRNA reading the genetic code to aminoa acid sequence in the protein and in bacteria can happen before transcription is completed

question

Codons

answer

64 three letter words and genetic code. and 61 of 64 code for genetic material and 3 of 64 code to stop translation

question

start codon

answer

shows where to start the translation to the tRNA

question

Start codon needs

answer

Anti codon on each tRNA is complimentary to the Codon on the mRNA in translation

question

tRNA

answer

goes from sequence to sequence to to create the polypeptide site,

question

A or amino acid site of tRNA

answer

amino acid site hold new tRNA with new amino acid attached

question

E site allows

answer

used tRNA to exit from ribosome

question

Stop codon

answer

a protein called release factor binds in a site and new rna and polypetide are released, the ribosomes are recycled to continue the process

question

operon in bacteria

answer

promotor, operater, structural genes

question

structural genes

answer

transcribed into mRNA

question

operons need

answer

inducer while repressible operons are always to be able to transcribe

question

control region

answer

promotor, operator region

question

lac operon

answer

is an induced operon meaning genes are not really transcribe but induced to produce the proteins of catabolism when present in the cell

question

lactose produces allolose that

answer

blocks the repressor and alows for transcription of lactose

question

regulatory gene produces repressor until

answer

the lactos or co repressor is present in the cell letting transcription take place

question

repressor proteins

answer

create a block on the operator preventing Rna polymerase from going

question

inducer and example

answer

inducer inactivates the repressor and example for lactose is allolactose

question

bacteria transcription occurs

answer

cytoplasm and transcription and translation can occur at the same time

question

In eukaryotes

answer

transcription occurs in Nucleas and messenger rna leaves through nuclear pores

question

Rna in eukaryotes has sequences that

answer

code for nothing to interrupt gene sequence.

question

removal of lactos from around cell

answer

the repressor stops RNA transcrption

question

Repression

answer

the Rna polymerase constantly produces its gene of tryptophan. the regulatory gene produces repressors that are inactive until too many tryptophan are produce that induce the repressor to bind to the operator stoping RNA polymerase

question

induction

answer

uses for ex. allolase as an inducer to the lac operon because the repressor is always attached to the operator region. When the lactose is in the cell its allolase inducer binds to the repressor making a substance to break down lactose. The lactose must be present to knock off the repressor

question

framshift mutations

answer

question

basesubstitution mutations

answer

when a single nucliotide substitutes for another. nonuse mutation, silent mutation, missuse mutation

question

missuse mutation

answer

single amino acid substitution can be harmful, beneficial, or nuetral

question

silent mutation

answer

just a change in base pairing and nothing is affected

question

nonsense mutation

answer

changes codons to make a stop codon which causes early termination of the protein and can be very harmful

question

framshift mutation

answer

nucliotides are inserted into or removed from dna sequence, lead to non functional proteins

question

framshift insertion

answer

one or more bases added to dna sequence and cause non functioning protein

question

framshift deletion

answer

one or bases are removed from dna squence cause non functioning protein

question

chemical mutations

answer

mutation are called mutagens. Most of them are also carcinogens.

question

uv light mutations are by

answer

UV light can induce adjacent thymine bases in a DNA strand to pair with each other, as a bulky dimer.

question

radation mutagens

answer

ionizing radiation xrays and gamma rays cause molecules to lose electrons becoming free radicles and highly radioactive to combine to bases on dna and result in errors and can react to phosphate backbone causeing breaks.

question

non ionizing radiation

answer

cause thyamine dymers to attach to one another and prevent cell from copying dna

question

chemical mutagens

answer

nucliocide analogs, different base pairings and come incorporating into dna and cause dna to not be able to be copied later, nitrous acid can cause adinine bases to pair to cyctocine bases, cause small insertions or small deletions, acridine, benzopyrine = from soot and smoke

question

biological mutation

answer

mutation of DNA during replication

question

horizontal gene transfer

answer

conjugation, transformation, transduction

question

competent bacteria

answer

are able to pick up dna from their environment and are stapholococcus pnumonia and ecoli(through lab work)

question

transformation

answer

bacteria is able to pick up dna from its environment. rough live and dead smooth come together to kill the mouse showing they incorporate from environment.

question

transduction

answer

a virus(bacteriophage) injects dna into the bacteria to replicate new viruses and the bacteria is transferred into the new virus being produced this virus then goes and infects bacteria and its dna is incorporated into the bacterias dna causing recombination.

question

control of gene expression

answer

negative control = repression

question

A or amino acid site

answer

holds new tRNA with amino acid attached

question

p or polypeptide site

answer

hold previous tRNA with growing polypeptide attached

question

avery

answer

Avery and his colleagues suggest that DNA, rather than protein as widely believed at the time, may be the hereditary material of bacteria, and could be analogous to genes and/or viruses in higher organisms

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