MI EOC review – Flashcards

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question
Why is information about a patient's lifestyle and about possible environmental exposures important when investigating an outbreak?
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Information about a patient's lifestyle could help you to get an idea of what kinds of activities make a person susceptible to the disease in the first place. You may find that students who are very busy (and therefore possibly not getting enough sleep or rest) are especially susceptible to a certain disease, and can therefore narrow down your search of students who are most likely to have contracted a disease. Also, student involvement in certain activities could help you to trace the path of an infection (i.e. if an infected student is on the soccer team, you might want to look at everyone else on the soccer team since they are more likely to have been exposed). Information about environmental exposures could give you a clue about where the disease originated, which might help you to trace back to patient zero. Basically, the more information you have about the people involved in an outbreak, the better.
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What medical interventions can be used to treat and contain the outbreak of an infectious disease?
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These include: 1) Modernizing infectious disease surveillance (collection of data that allows the healthcare community to make better plans for preventing diseases), 2) Expanding the role of public health and clinical labs in disease control and prevention (empowering local healthcare workers to help prevent the spread of disease so that it is not seen as just the job of the CDC), 3) Improving the capacity for epidemiologic investigations and public health response (using practice scenarios to keep healthcare workers sharp and make them ready for whatever they will encounter), 4) Developing new vaccines, 5) Training local healthcare workers on standardized infection control techniques that prevent the spread of an infection, 7) Taking measures to prevent the spread of infection transmitted by animals or insects, 8) Reducing the incidence of healthcare-associated infections (infections that occur because of a patient's stay at a healthcare facility, 9) Tracking and investigating infections that occur because of food contamination Other treatment methods include the proper use of medication to treat a disease and quarantine to prevent the spread of the disease.
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pathogen
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any disease causing agent.
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vector
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In medicine, a carrier of disease or of medication. For example, in malaria a mosquito is the vector that carries and transfers the infectious agent. In molecular biology, a vector may be a virus or a plasmid that carries a piece of foreign DNA to a host cell.
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host
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An organism that is infected with or is fed upon by a parasitic or pathogenic organism (for example, a virus, nematode, fungus). An animal or plant that nourishes and supports a parasite; the host does not benefit and is often harmed by the association.(medicine) recipient of transplanted tissue or organ from a donor.An organism that a parasite is situated within.
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describe the limitations of traditional methods of identifying bacteria.
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Many pathogenic bacteria do not grow well on solid cultural mediums and the process is time consuming and unreliable
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sample prep
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1. centrifuge a single colony 2. dissolve cell with buffer (enzymes) 3. denature enzymes by heating 4. spin in centrifuge (solid deposit)
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PCR amplification
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1. Add mastermix to sample 2. replication process 3. Copy DNA 5. both reactions contain PCR solution 6. tubes are loaded onto thermocycler
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PCR purification
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1. run gels
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sequencing
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1. copies 2. primers 3. brew- primers and buffers
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sequencing ii
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1. separate individual pieces 2. automatic sequencer- gel electrophoresis 3. electric current applied 4. different length fragments 5. fluorescent tags
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sequencing analysis
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1. computer builds sequences by matching
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how can scientists identify specific bacteria when they are amplifying and studying the same region of DNA in each species?
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Scientists can tell by the difference in nucleotide base sequences.
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Why is PCR used in the process of DNA sequencing?
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Creates ideal temperature where the certain enzyme and primers can work to copy.
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How can DNA sequencing technique shown in the virtual lab be used to identify other classes of pathogens such as viruses?
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Since scientists have sequenced the entire human genome, we now have ideas for many genetic diseases about which region of the genome affects risk for certain diseases and disorders. Since we know which regions to look at, we can test this specific region on individuals and detect whether their sequence indicates a risk for a certain disorder. In many diseases or disorders, the sequence (or sequences) are still being searched for. Once these sequences that cause (or affect) the development of a disorder are found, then people can be tested to see what their risk is for developing that disease or disorder. The field of genetics is making headway in this area all the time, and as it does, our ability to assess the risk of certain individuals for genetic diseases or disorders increases.
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How can DNA sequencing be used to identify genetic risk for certain diseses and disorders?
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Since scientists have sequenced the entire human genome, we now have ideas for many genetic diseases about which region of the genome affects risk for certain diseases and disorders. Since we know which regions to look at, we can test this specific region on individuals and detect whether their sequence indicates a risk for a certain disorder. In many diseases or disorders, the sequence (or sequences) are still being searched for. Once these sequences that cause (or affect) the development of a disorder are found, then people can be tested to see what their risk is for developing that disease or disorder. The field of genetics is making headway in this area all the time, and as it does, our ability to assess the risk of certain individuals for genetic diseases or disorders increases.
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what does ELISA mean?
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enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, an immunological assay technique making use of an enzyme bonded to a particular antibody or antigen.
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What does ELISA test for?
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An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, also called ELISA or EIA, is a test that detects and measures antibodies in your blood. ... Antibodies are proteins that your body produces in response to harmful substances called antigens. An ELISA test may be used to diagnose: HIV, which causes AIDS.
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how does an indirect ELISA work?
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In the indirect ELISA test, the sample antibody is sandwiched between the antigen coated on the plate and an enzyme-labeled, anti-species globulin conjugate. The addition of an enzyme substrate-chromogen reagent causes color to develop.
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how does a direct ELISA work?
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Initially in a direct ELISA test which is considered to be the simplest type of ELISA the antigen is adsorbed to a plastic plate, then an excess of another protein (normally bovine serum albumin) is added to block all the other binding sites. While an enzyme is linked to an antibody in a separate reaction, the enzyme-antibody complex is applied to adsorb to the antigen. After excess enzyme-antibody complex is washed off, enzyme-antibody bound to antigen is left. By adding in the enzyme's substrate, the enzyme is detected illustrating the signal of the antigen.
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Antigen
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a substance capable of provoking an immune response when introduced into an immunocompetent hose to whom it is foreign
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Primary antibody
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an immunoglobulin that specifically binds to a particular protein or other biomolecule of research interest for the purpose of purifying or detecting and measuring it.
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secondary antibody
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Secondary antibodies bind to the primary antibody to assist in detection, sorting and purification of target antigens. To enable detection, the secondary antibody must have specificity for the antibody species and isotype of the primary antibody being used and generally is conjugated.
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enzyme
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a substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.
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substrate
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a substance or layer that underlies something, or on which some process occurs, in particular. the surface or material on or from which an organism lives, grows, or obtains its nourishment. the substance on which an enzyme acts.
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neisseria meningitidis bacteria
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a Gram-negative bacterium that can cause meningitis and other forms of meningococcal disease such as meningococcemia, a life-threatening sepsis. The bacterium is referred to as a coccus because it is round, and more specifically, diplococcus because of its tendency to form pairs.
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Explain why antibodies allow scientists to target and identify specific disease agents.
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The amount of antibodies that are present let the scientists know how far progressed the disease is so they can know what amount of medicine to prescribe. They show whenever they do ELISA tests which help show how concentrated antibodies are.
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Why is the secondary antibody used in an ELISA test conjugated with an enzyme? What happens when this enzyme meets up with its substrate?
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The secondary antibody is conjugated with an enzyme because it shows the concentration, The enzyme substrate reaction shows a color change, which again shows how many antibodies are present.
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Disease samples from two patients were collected and subjected to serial dilutions before running an ELISA. What does it mean if the disease can be detected in samples from one person only at a dilution of 1/5 but the disease can be detected in the other patient at a dilution of 1/5 and 1/100?
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It means that both of the people have the disease, but the second person has it stronger.
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Explain why in sudden outbreaks, it may be better to test for disease antigens rather than for antibodies.
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If the disease is sudden and unknown, no one is going to have antibodies built up against it so, as you always say, you can't test something that isn't present.
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what is a medical intervention?
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The act of intervening, interfering or interceding with the intent of modifying the outcome. In medicine, an intervention is usually undertaken to help treat or cure a condition. For example, early intervention may help children with autism to speak.
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what are the main categories of interventions that function to maintain human health
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treatments, diagnostics, and equipment
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How do scientists gather evidence during the potential outbreak of an infectious disease?
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-recording patients' symptoms and find similarities with other patients -isolate bacteria in a lab - go to affected areas and determine the origin - DNA sequences can be used to identify disease pathogens since they alter the DNA sequences
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bioinformatics
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The collection, classification, storage, and analysis of biochemical and biological information using computers especially as applied in molecular genetics and genomics.
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How can DNA sequences be used to identify disease pathogens?
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They can find genes that are associated with the pathogen.
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antibody
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a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances that the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.
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How do antibodies identify and inactivate antigens?
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-they use shape recognition - the proteins of cells are configured to specific antibodies, so the foreign antigens bind to the specific antibodies that inactivate them
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How does ELISA detect disease?
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1. primary antibodies attach to specific antigen 2. secondary antibody attaches to primary antibody 3. when enzyme substrate is added, color change occurs
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Why is it important for doctors to know the concentration of disease antigens?
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- explains how serious the disease antigen is - the more the disease the easier it is to diagnose patients
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What steps do scientists take to diagnose, treat, and prevent future spread of a disease outbreak?
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-symptoms are noted -origin of pathogen is determined/incubation time -tests like blood tests to determine antibodies ; antigens -preventative measure like quarantining
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nucleoid
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The nucleoid (meaning nucleus-like) is an irregularly shaped region within the cell of a prokaryote that contains all or most of the genetic material, called genophore. In contrast to the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, it is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
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plasmid
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a genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes, typically a small circular DNA strand in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or protozoan. Plasmids are much used in the laboratory manipulation of genes.
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ribosomes
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a minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells. They bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to synthesize polypeptides and proteins.
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cell wall
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a rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside the plasma membrane of the cells of plants, fungi, and bacteria. In the algae and higher plants, it consists mainly of cellulose.
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plasma membrane ( cell membrane)
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a microscopic membrane of lipids and proteins that forms the external boundary of the cytoplasm of a cell or encloses a vacuole, and that regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the cytoplasm.
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capsule
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a tough sheath or membrane that encloses something in the body, such as a kidney, a lens, or a synovial joint.
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flagella
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a slender threadlike structure, especially a microscopic whiplike appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria, spermatozoa, etc., to swim.
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Pili
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Short, filamentous projections on a bacterial cell, used not for motility but for adhering to other bacterial cell (especially for mating) or to animal cells.
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endotoxins
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Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as lipoglycans and endotoxins, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen, outer core and inner core joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and elicit strong immune responses in animals.
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Penicillins( b-lactam)
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an antibiotic or group of antibiotics produced naturally by certain blue molds, and now usually prepared synthetically.
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tetrcycline
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any of a large group of antibiotics with a molecular structure containing four rings.
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fluoroquinolones
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any of a class of therapeutic antibiotics that are active against a range of bacteria associated with human and animal diseases. Their use in livestock has sparked concerns about the spread of bacteria resistant to them in humans.
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Sulfa antibiotics (sulfonamids)
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One of the sulfonamides, the sulfa-related antibiotics which are used to treat bacterial and some fungal infections. The first sulfa drug was prontosil. It was discovered by the German physician and chemist Gerhard Domagk in 1935. Sulfa drugs kill bacteria and fungi by interfering with their metabolism.
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what cellular components do some bacterial cells have that make them powerful pathogens?
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pili (alows the structure to attach to others like a leech), the capsule (protects it from forein invaders), endospores ( allows the cell to survive harsh conditions)
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why are penicillin more effective against gram positive bacteria ?
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gram positive bacteria only has one layer of the cytoplasmic membrane and gram negative has two
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why is it important to understand the structure of a bacterial cell when developing and antibiotic?
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by knowing more you owuld know what protiens and enzymes the cell is made of and then be able to configure something to kill them
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how do antibiotics work without harming the surrounding human cells ?
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antibiotics are developed to attack the cell walls and (eukaryotic cells) we dont have them
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pinna
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the external part of the ear in humans and other mammals; the auricle.
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auditory canal
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The ear canal (external acoustic meatus, external auditory meatus, EAM) (Latin: meatus acusticus externus), is a tube running from the outer ear to the middle ear. The adult human ear canal extends from the pinna to the eardrum and is about 2.5 centimetres (1 in) in length and 0.7 centimetres (0.3 in) in diameter.
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eustachian tube
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a narrow passage leading from the pharynx to the cavity of the middle ear, permitting the equalization of pressure on each side of the eardrum.
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ossicles
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a small piece of calcified material forming part of the skeleton of an invertebrate animal such as an echinoderm.a very small bone, especially one of those in the middle ear.
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malleus
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a small bone in the middle ear that transmits vibrations of the eardrum to the incus.
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incus
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a small anvil-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations between the malleus and stapes.
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stapes
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a small stirrup-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations from the incus to the inner ear.
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tympanic membrane
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a membrane forming part of the organ of hearing, which vibrates in response to sound waves. In humans and other higher vertebrates it forms the eardrum, between the outer and middle ear.
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vestibule
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A small entrance hall or passage between the outer door and the interior of a house or building. 2. An enclosed area at the end of a passenger car on a railroad train. 3. Anatomy A body cavity, chamber, or channel that leads to or is an entrance to another body cavity: the vestibule of the inner ear.
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cochlea
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the spiral cavity of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti, which produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations.
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sensory hair cells
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Hair cells are the sensory receptors of both the auditory system and the vestibular system in the ears of all vertebrates. Through mechanotransduction, hair cells detect movement in their environment.
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cochlear nerve
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each of the eighth pair of cranial nerves, conveying sensory impulses from the organs of hearing and balance in the inner ear to the brain. The vestibulocochlear nerve on each side branches into the vestibular nerve and the cochlear nerve.
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oval window
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a small natural hole or opening, especially in a bone. The mammalian middle ear is linked by the fenestra ovalis to the vestibule of the inner ear, and by the fenestra rotunda to the cochlea.
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vestibular nerve
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each of the eighth pair of cranial nerves, conveying sensory impulses from the organs of hearing and balance in the inner ear to the brain. The vestibulocochlear nerve on each side branches into the vestibular nerve and the cochlear nerve.
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explain how sound travels
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As sound travels through the air, it creates a disturbance in the particles of the medium. Particles of the medium vibrate back and forth from their resting positions creating a series of compressions and rarefactions. The energy of the wave is transferred as particles collide. Air particles are NOT carried along with the wave. Waves carry energy, not matter.
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Describe the pathway of sound from the time a sound is generated to the time our brain registers the sound
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Sound waves travel from outer ear in through auditory canal, causing tympanic membrane to vibrate, causing ossicles to move; vibrations move via the oval window through the fluid in the cochlea, stimulating thousands of tiny hair cells; results in transformation of vibrations into electrical impulses our brain perceives as sound
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Difference between conductive and sensorineural hearing loss
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Conductive is sounds not being able to pass to inner ear due to blockage or abnormal structure in middle or outer ear and usually can be treated; sensorineural is damage to hair cells in cochlea and if irreversible and no cure
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Rinne test
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The Rinne test (/?r?n?/ RIN-?) is a hearing test, primarily for evaluating loss of hearing in one ear (unilateral hearing loss). It compares perception of sounds transmitted by air conduction to those transmitted by bone conduction through the mastoid.
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audiologist
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Audiologists are health-care professionals who evaluate, diagnose, treat, and manage hearing loss, tinnitus, and balance disorders in newborn, children, and adults. Audiology is a well-respected and highly recognized profession.
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tinnitus
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ringing or buzzing in the ears
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how do frequencey and amplitude affect how humans interpret sound?
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The frequency is how fast the vibrations are being interpreted in our ears. The amplitude is the loudness of the sound, or the force.
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What causes different types of hearing loss?
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There can be things that block off the nerves in the inner ear(Conductive), there can be things that damage nerves the inner ear, like bacterial meningitis, excessive loud noise, or physical damage to the head/ear(Sensorineural), and there can be problems with both the middle and inner ear.
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how is hearing loss diagnosed ?
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You can test by physically looking inside the ear to see if the middle ear is blocked, you can take a tuning fork test(Tests Conductive and Sensorineural), and you can take an Audiometer test(wear earphones and listen to certain sounds at different frequencies, etc.)
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What interventions are available for patients with hearing loss?
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There are hearing aids, that you can wear on the outside of your ear, and there are cochlear implants, that are inserted into your ear and stimulate the cochlea directly.
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What are the bio ethical concerns related to the use of cochlear implant technology?
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Many people would say that deafness is an impairment and it needs to be fixed, if it can. Others would say that being deaf isn't an impairment, but it is something unique to that specific person.
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vaccination
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treatment with a vaccine to produce immunity against a disease; inoculation.
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How does a vaccine activate the body's immune system?
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It provides the antigens necessary for the body to recognize a threat and so the memory t cells remember it in case it presents itself in the future
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How has vaccination impacted disease trends in our country?
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it has eliminated things like polio and smallpox, herd immunity
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What methods are used to produce vaccines in the laboratory?
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live attenuated (weakened), killed or inactivated, toxoid, genetically engineered, DNA
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What is recombinant DNA technology?
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DNA that has been altered and put into new combinations by researchers / the process of cutting and recombining DNA fragments
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What are the molecular tools used to assemble recombinant DNA?
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scissors/restriction enzyme, glue/ligase
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How can recombinant DNA and bacterial cells be used to produce vaccines?
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Recombinant DNA technology is the process of cutting and recombining DNA fragments. Bacteria carry DNA in plasmids, which are rings of DNA that contain DNA sequences that include areas for the ori and antibiotic resistance.
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How can engineered plasmids be inserted into bacterial cells?
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There are primarily three methods, conjugation (transfer of info using pilli), transduction (transfer of info by bactriophages), and transformation (uptake of DNA from outside the cell). I
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epidemiolody
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Epidemiology is a branch of medicine that deals with the control of diseases and other factors encompassing health. They research the causes of health issues, and how they could be improved.
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How can epidemiologists assist with the detection, prevention, and treatment of both chronic and infectious disease?
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They can provide the quantitative evidence for justifying needed policies. Also, their input can be helpful in demonstrating the effectiveness of policies once they have been adopted.
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Case-Control Study
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A type of epidemiologic study where a group of individuals with the diseases, referred to as cases, are compared to individuals without the disease, referred to as controls
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cohort study
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A type of epidemiologic study where a group of exposed individuals (individuals who have been exposed to the potential risk factor) and a group of non-exposed individuals are followed over time to determine the incidence of disease
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genetic counseling
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A process of communication that deals with the occurrence or risk that a genetic disorder will occur in a family
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How would a genetic counselor use a pedigree to help his or her clients understand genetic diseases?
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Pedigrees show the route in which genetic diseases take as far as the inheritance in involved. A genetic counselor would use a pedigree to show the inheritance of a certain genetic disease/disorder in a particular family.
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Explain why parents may be fearful or apprehensive about genetic testing.
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Some parents may be afraid to find out if their child has a genetic disease/disorder before he/she is born. It could put a good amount of stress on both parents during the pregnancy.
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How might factors such as income and access to medical insurance, influence a couple's genetic testing and reproductive decisions?
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A couple could go into genetic counseling to see their chances of having a child with a genetic disease/disorder. If their chances are high, the couple may decide to just not have a child, possibly due to an inability to afford the child's special needs or due to lack of medical insurance.
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What is the purpose of PCR?
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To copy a certain sequence of DNA; because significant amounts of a sample of DNA are necessary for molecular and genetic analyses, studies of isolated pieces of DNA are nearly impossible without PCR amplification.
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Taq polymerase
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amplify DNAs in PCR
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DNA primer
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A primer is a short strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. It is required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA.
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what are dna nucleotides of dntps
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Nucleotides (dNTPs or deoxynucleotide triphosphates) - single units of the bases A, T, G, and C, which are essentially "building blocks" for new DNA strands.
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what is amniocentesis
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Amniocentesis is a diagnostic test carried out during pregnancy. It can assess whether the unborn baby (fetus) could develop, or has developed, an abnormality or serious health condition.
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what is chorionic villus sampling
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CVS - small samples taken from the placenta transcervically or transabdominally
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Amniocentesis advantages
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Specific measures of amniotic fluid levels of alphafetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase for evaluation of neural tube defects Also evaluates fetal lung maturity
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Amniocentesis advantages
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Specific measures of amniotic fluid levels of alphafetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase for evaluation of neural tube defects Also evaluates fetal lung maturity
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what are SNPs
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A Single Nucleotide Polymorphism. They are single-nucleotide substitutions of one base for another To be classified as a SNP, it must be present in at least 1% of the population. SNPs occur throughout the human genome 10 million (or one in every 300 base pairs.)
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How are restriction enzymes and electrophoresis used to identify SNPs and determine genotype?
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Restriction enzymes cuts the DNA and if there is a SNP the DNA will be cut in different places or not at all. Gel electrophoresis allows us to visually see and compare the results.
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What can amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling tell a couple about their developing fetus?
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We use these techniques to take a karyotype and other genetic tests to verify that there are no genetic diseases • Chorionic Villi testing can be done earlier, taking cells from the placenta using one of two methods • Amniocentesis is done later with slightly less risk of miscarriage from the amniotic fluid
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of using viral vectors for gene therapy?
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Some disadvantages of using viral vectors are that the new gene may be inserted in the wrong DNA location. An advantage of using viral vectors is that some viruses a=can transfer good genes into the human cell.
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What factors must be considered when choosing a vector for a gene therapy trial?
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the side effects will cause an immune response or allergic reaction.
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A young boy suffers from Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1), a genetic nervous system disorder that causes tumors to grow around nerve cells. The gene for NF1, approximately 8,400 base pairs long, is located on chromosome 11. What is the best candidate for a vector for gene therapy in this case? Provide evidence from your research to support your choice.
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The keys to solving this problem are: 1) the type of cell that is the target of the vector [nerve cell] 2) the characteristics of the target cell [nerve cells do not divide] 3) the length of the gene to be carried by the vector [8,400 base pairs] ---->Sounds like Herpes Simplex Virus would be an appropriate vector.
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Many athletes and administrators fear the widespread use of gene doping - the use of gene therapy to modify genes that improve athletic performance. Describe at least two genetic modifications that would improve the performance of an athlete. Make sure to mention the body system(s) affected as well as the specific goal of the therapy.
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Increases strength of athletes muscles.Could inject a gene that generates testosterone. HGH or muscle-strengthening protein
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reproductive endocrinologist
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a branch of medicine that identifies and treats infertility in both men and women.
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andrologist
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is the medical specialty that deals with male health, particularly relating to the problems of the male reproductive system and urological problems that are unique to men.
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What is the difference between reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning?
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Reproductive cloning is to make a new human life form, while therapeutic cloning is to create stem cells that are genetically compatible with the recipient
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metastsis
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the development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary site of cancer.
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how can hela cells have an abnormal number or structure of chromosomes?
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HeLa cells have 46+ chromosomes because papilatoma virus chromosome combines with human chromosome normal amount is 70-90 chromosomes
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. How can studying genes give us more information about cancer?
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Cancers are caused when cells divide too rapidly, and are dividing without correcting mistakes in the DNA (mutations). We have protective genes in our cells which control the rate of division, fix problems with DNA, or even kill the cell if it too damaged. When these protective proteins are gone or not working right, that is when we get cancer. So by finding out more about these proteins (and the genes which encode them) we can discover more about specific types and causes of cancer.
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microarray
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expression in genes or lack of expression (degree or quantity)
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how do dna microarrays measure
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DNA microarrays measure the number and amount of genes turned on and off in cancer cells vs. normal cells We can do this by collecting mRNA from the cells, which will only be made if the genes are turned on We can also determine if there is a correlation between genes interacting with each other
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how do pyrimidine antagonists work
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act as a decoy or fraudulent pyrimidine base which inhibits important enzymes in the pyrimidine cycle
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how can viruses cause cancer
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by altering the genetic make up of cells
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Haplotype
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is a set of DNA variations, or polymorphisms, that tend to be inherited together. A haplotype can refer to a combination of alleles or to a set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found on the same chromosome.
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Thiopurines methyltransfere
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an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the TPMT gene. A pseudogene for this locus is located on chromosome 18q.
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