question

Why is information about a patient's lifestyle and about possible environmental exposures important when investigating an outbreak?

answer

Information about a patient's lifestyle could help you to get an idea of what kinds of activities make a person susceptible to the disease in the first place. You may find that students who are very busy (and therefore possibly not getting enough sleep or rest) are especially susceptible to a certain disease, and can therefore narrow down your search of students who are most likely to have contracted a disease. Also, student involvement in certain activities could help you to trace the path of an infection (i.e. if an infected student is on the soccer team, you might want to look at everyone else on the soccer team since they are more likely to have been exposed). Information about environmental exposures could give you a clue about where the disease originated, which might help you to trace back to patient zero. Basically, the more information you have about the people involved in an outbreak, the better.

question

What medical interventions can be used to treat and contain the outbreak of an infectious disease?

answer

These include: 1) Modernizing infectious disease surveillance (collection of data that allows the healthcare community to make better plans for preventing diseases), 2) Expanding the role of public health and clinical labs in disease control and prevention (empowering local healthcare workers to help prevent the spread of disease so that it is not seen as just the job of the CDC), 3) Improving the capacity for epidemiologic investigations and public health response (using practice scenarios to keep healthcare workers sharp and make them ready for whatever they will encounter), 4) Developing new vaccines, 5) Training local healthcare workers on standardized infection control techniques that prevent the spread of an infection, 7) Taking measures to prevent the spread of infection transmitted by animals or insects, 8) Reducing the incidence of healthcare-associated infections (infections that occur because of a patient's stay at a healthcare facility, 9) Tracking and investigating infections that occur because of food contamination Other treatment methods include the proper use of medication to treat a disease and quarantine to prevent the spread of the disease.

question

pathogen

answer

any disease causing agent.

question

vector

answer

In medicine, a carrier of disease or of medication. For example, in malaria a mosquito is the vector that carries and transfers the infectious agent. In molecular biology, a vector may be a virus or a plasmid that carries a piece of foreign DNA to a host cell.

question

host

answer

An organism that is infected with or is fed upon by a parasitic or pathogenic organism (for example, a virus, nematode, fungus). An animal or plant that nourishes and supports a parasite; the host does not benefit and is often harmed by the association.(medicine) recipient of transplanted tissue or organ from a donor.An organism that a parasite is situated within.

question

describe the limitations of traditional methods of identifying bacteria.

answer

Many pathogenic bacteria do not grow well on solid cultural mediums and the process is time consuming and unreliable

question

sample prep

answer

1. centrifuge a single colony 2. dissolve cell with buffer (enzymes) 3. denature enzymes by heating 4. spin in centrifuge (solid deposit)

question

PCR amplification

answer

1. Add mastermix to sample 2. replication process 3. Copy DNA 5. both reactions contain PCR solution 6. tubes are loaded onto thermocycler

question

PCR purification

answer

1. run gels

question

sequencing

answer

1. copies 2. primers 3. brew- primers and buffers

question

sequencing ii

answer

1. separate individual pieces 2. automatic sequencer- gel electrophoresis 3. electric current applied 4. different length fragments 5. fluorescent tags

question

sequencing analysis

answer

1. computer builds sequences by matching

question

how can scientists identify specific bacteria when they are amplifying and studying the same region of DNA in each species?

answer

Scientists can tell by the difference in nucleotide base sequences.

question

Why is PCR used in the process of DNA sequencing?

answer

Creates ideal temperature where the certain enzyme and primers can work to copy.

question

How can DNA sequencing technique shown in the virtual lab be used to identify other classes of pathogens such as viruses?

answer

Since scientists have sequenced the entire human genome, we now have ideas for many genetic diseases about which region of the genome affects risk for certain diseases and disorders. Since we know which regions to look at, we can test this specific region on individuals and detect whether their sequence indicates a risk for a certain disorder. In many diseases or disorders, the sequence (or sequences) are still being searched for. Once these sequences that cause (or affect) the development of a disorder are found, then people can be tested to see what their risk is for developing that disease or disorder. The field of genetics is making headway in this area all the time, and as it does, our ability to assess the risk of certain individuals for genetic diseases or disorders increases.

question

How can DNA sequencing be used to identify genetic risk for certain diseses and disorders?

answer

Since scientists have sequenced the entire human genome, we now have ideas for many genetic diseases about which region of the genome affects risk for certain diseases and disorders. Since we know which regions to look at, we can test this specific region on individuals and detect whether their sequence indicates a risk for a certain disorder. In many diseases or disorders, the sequence (or sequences) are still being searched for. Once these sequences that cause (or affect) the development of a disorder are found, then people can be tested to see what their risk is for developing that disease or disorder. The field of genetics is making headway in this area all the time, and as it does, our ability to assess the risk of certain individuals for genetic diseases or disorders increases.

question

what does ELISA mean?

answer

enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, an immunological assay technique making use of an enzyme bonded to a particular antibody or antigen.

question

What does ELISA test for?

answer

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, also called ELISA or EIA, is a test that detects and measures antibodies in your blood. ... Antibodies are proteins that your body produces in response to harmful substances called antigens. An ELISA test may be used to diagnose: HIV, which causes AIDS.

question

how does an indirect ELISA work?

answer

In the indirect ELISA test, the sample antibody is sandwiched between the antigen coated on the plate and an enzyme-labeled, anti-species globulin conjugate. The addition of an enzyme substrate-chromogen reagent causes color to develop.

question

how does a direct ELISA work?

answer

Initially in a direct ELISA test which is considered to be the simplest type of ELISA the antigen is adsorbed to a plastic plate, then an excess of another protein (normally bovine serum albumin) is added to block all the other binding sites. While an enzyme is linked to an antibody in a separate reaction, the enzyme-antibody complex is applied to adsorb to the antigen. After excess enzyme-antibody complex is washed off, enzyme-antibody bound to antigen is left. By adding in the enzyme's substrate, the enzyme is detected illustrating the signal of the antigen.

question

Antigen

answer

a substance capable of provoking an immune response when introduced into an immunocompetent hose to whom it is foreign

question

Primary antibody

answer

an immunoglobulin that specifically binds to a particular protein or other biomolecule of research interest for the purpose of purifying or detecting and measuring it.

question

secondary antibody

answer

Secondary antibodies bind to the primary antibody to assist in detection, sorting and purification of target antigens. To enable detection, the secondary antibody must have specificity for the antibody species and isotype of the primary antibody being used and generally is conjugated.

question

enzyme

answer

a substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.

question

substrate

answer

a substance or layer that underlies something, or on which some process occurs, in particular. the surface or material on or from which an organism lives, grows, or obtains its nourishment. the substance on which an enzyme acts.

question

neisseria meningitidis bacteria

answer

a Gram-negative bacterium that can cause meningitis and other forms of meningococcal disease such as meningococcemia, a life-threatening sepsis. The bacterium is referred to as a coccus because it is round, and more specifically, diplococcus because of its tendency to form pairs.

question

Explain why antibodies allow scientists to target and identify specific disease agents.

answer

The amount of antibodies that are present let the scientists know how far progressed the disease is so they can know what amount of medicine to prescribe. They show whenever they do ELISA tests which help show how concentrated antibodies are.

question

Why is the secondary antibody used in an ELISA test conjugated with an enzyme? What happens when this enzyme meets up with its substrate?

answer

The secondary antibody is conjugated with an enzyme because it shows the concentration, The enzyme substrate reaction shows a color change, which again shows how many antibodies are present.

question

Disease samples from two patients were collected and subjected to serial dilutions before running an ELISA. What does it mean if the disease can be detected in samples from one person only at a dilution of 1/5 but the disease can be detected in the other patient at a dilution of 1/5 and 1/100?

answer

It means that both of the people have the disease, but the second person has it stronger.

question

Explain why in sudden outbreaks, it may be better to test for disease antigens rather than for antibodies.

answer

If the disease is sudden and unknown, no one is going to have antibodies built up against it so, as you always say, you can't test something that isn't present.

question

what is a medical intervention?

answer

The act of intervening, interfering or interceding with the intent of modifying the outcome. In medicine, an intervention is usually undertaken to help treat or cure a condition. For example, early intervention may help children with autism to speak.

question

what are the main categories of interventions that function to maintain human health

answer

treatments, diagnostics, and equipment

question

How do scientists gather evidence during the potential outbreak of an infectious disease?

answer

-recording patients' symptoms and find similarities with other patients -isolate bacteria in a lab - go to affected areas and determine the origin - DNA sequences can be used to identify disease pathogens since they alter the DNA sequences

question

bioinformatics

answer

The collection, classification, storage, and analysis of biochemical and biological information using computers especially as applied in molecular genetics and genomics.

question

How can DNA sequences be used to identify disease pathogens?

answer

They can find genes that are associated with the pathogen.

question

antibody

answer

a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances that the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.

question

How do antibodies identify and inactivate antigens?

answer

-they use shape recognition - the proteins of cells are configured to specific antibodies, so the foreign antigens bind to the specific antibodies that inactivate them

question

How does ELISA detect disease?

answer

1. primary antibodies attach to specific antigen 2. secondary antibody attaches to primary antibody 3. when enzyme substrate is added, color change occurs

question

Why is it important for doctors to know the concentration of disease antigens?

answer

- explains how serious the disease antigen is - the more the disease the easier it is to diagnose patients

question

What steps do scientists take to diagnose, treat, and prevent future spread of a disease outbreak?

answer

-symptoms are noted -origin of pathogen is determined/incubation time -tests like blood tests to determine antibodies ; antigens -preventative measure like quarantining

question

nucleoid

answer

The nucleoid (meaning nucleus-like) is an irregularly shaped region within the cell of a prokaryote that contains all or most of the genetic material, called genophore. In contrast to the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, it is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane.

question

plasmid

answer

a genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes, typically a small circular DNA strand in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or protozoan. Plasmids are much used in the laboratory manipulation of genes.

question

ribosomes

answer

a minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells. They bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to synthesize polypeptides and proteins.

question

cell wall

answer

a rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside the plasma membrane of the cells of plants, fungi, and bacteria. In the algae and higher plants, it consists mainly of cellulose.

question

plasma membrane ( cell membrane)

answer

a microscopic membrane of lipids and proteins that forms the external boundary of the cytoplasm of a cell or encloses a vacuole, and that regulates the passage of molecules in and out of the cytoplasm.

question

capsule

answer

a tough sheath or membrane that encloses something in the body, such as a kidney, a lens, or a synovial joint.

question

flagella

answer

a slender threadlike structure, especially a microscopic whiplike appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria, spermatozoa, etc., to swim.

question

Pili

answer

Short, filamentous projections on a bacterial cell, used not for motility but for adhering to other bacterial cell (especially for mating) or to animal cells.

question

endotoxins

answer

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as lipoglycans and endotoxins, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen, outer core and inner core joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and elicit strong immune responses in animals.

question

Penicillins( b-lactam)

answer

an antibiotic or group of antibiotics produced naturally by certain blue molds, and now usually prepared synthetically.

question

tetrcycline

answer

any of a large group of antibiotics with a molecular structure containing four rings.

question

fluoroquinolones

answer

any of a class of therapeutic antibiotics that are active against a range of bacteria associated with human and animal diseases. Their use in livestock has sparked concerns about the spread of bacteria resistant to them in humans.

question

Sulfa antibiotics (sulfonamids)

answer

One of the sulfonamides, the sulfa-related antibiotics which are used to treat bacterial and some fungal infections. The first sulfa drug was prontosil. It was discovered by the German physician and chemist Gerhard Domagk in 1935. Sulfa drugs kill bacteria and fungi by interfering with their metabolism.

question

what cellular components do some bacterial cells have that make them powerful pathogens?

answer

pili (alows the structure to attach to others like a leech), the capsule (protects it from forein invaders), endospores ( allows the cell to survive harsh conditions)

question

why are penicillin more effective against gram positive bacteria ?

answer

gram positive bacteria only has one layer of the cytoplasmic membrane and gram negative has two

question

why is it important to understand the structure of a bacterial cell when developing and antibiotic?

answer

by knowing more you owuld know what protiens and enzymes the cell is made of and then be able to configure something to kill them

question

how do antibiotics work without harming the surrounding human cells ?

answer

antibiotics are developed to attack the cell walls and (eukaryotic cells) we dont have them

question

pinna

answer

the external part of the ear in humans and other mammals; the auricle.

question

auditory canal

answer

The ear canal (external acoustic meatus, external auditory meatus, EAM) (Latin: meatus acusticus externus), is a tube running from the outer ear to the middle ear. The adult human ear canal extends from the pinna to the eardrum and is about 2.5 centimetres (1 in) in length and 0.7 centimetres (0.3 in) in diameter.

question

eustachian tube

answer

a narrow passage leading from the pharynx to the cavity of the middle ear, permitting the equalization of pressure on each side of the eardrum.

question

ossicles

answer

a small piece of calcified material forming part of the skeleton of an invertebrate animal such as an echinoderm.a very small bone, especially one of those in the middle ear.

question

malleus

answer

a small bone in the middle ear that transmits vibrations of the eardrum to the incus.

question

incus

answer

a small anvil-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations between the malleus and stapes.

question

stapes

answer

a small stirrup-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations from the incus to the inner ear.

question

tympanic membrane

answer

a membrane forming part of the organ of hearing, which vibrates in response to sound waves. In humans and other higher vertebrates it forms the eardrum, between the outer and middle ear.

question

vestibule

answer

A small entrance hall or passage between the outer door and the interior of a house or building. 2. An enclosed area at the end of a passenger car on a railroad train. 3. Anatomy A body cavity, chamber, or channel that leads to or is an entrance to another body cavity: the vestibule of the inner ear.

question

cochlea

answer

the spiral cavity of the inner ear containing the organ of Corti, which produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations.

question

sensory hair cells

answer

Hair cells are the sensory receptors of both the auditory system and the vestibular system in the ears of all vertebrates. Through mechanotransduction, hair cells detect movement in their environment.

question

cochlear nerve

answer

each of the eighth pair of cranial nerves, conveying sensory impulses from the organs of hearing and balance in the inner ear to the brain. The vestibulocochlear nerve on each side branches into the vestibular nerve and the cochlear nerve.

question

oval window

answer

a small natural hole or opening, especially in a bone. The mammalian middle ear is linked by the fenestra ovalis to the vestibule of the inner ear, and by the fenestra rotunda to the cochlea.

question

vestibular nerve

answer

each of the eighth pair of cranial nerves, conveying sensory impulses from the organs of hearing and balance in the inner ear to the brain. The vestibulocochlear nerve on each side branches into the vestibular nerve and the cochlear nerve.

question

explain how sound travels

answer

As sound travels through the air, it creates a disturbance in the particles of the medium. Particles of the medium vibrate back and forth from their resting positions creating a series of compressions and rarefactions. The energy of the wave is transferred as particles collide. Air particles are NOT carried along with the wave. Waves carry energy, not matter.

question

Describe the pathway of sound from the time a sound is generated to the time our brain registers the sound

answer

Sound waves travel from outer ear in through auditory canal, causing tympanic membrane to vibrate, causing ossicles to move; vibrations move via the oval window through the fluid in the cochlea, stimulating thousands of tiny hair cells; results in transformation of vibrations into electrical impulses our brain perceives as sound

question

Difference between conductive and sensorineural hearing loss

answer

Conductive is sounds not being able to pass to inner ear due to blockage or abnormal structure in middle or outer ear and usually can be treated; sensorineural is damage to hair cells in cochlea and if irreversible and no cure

question

Rinne test

answer

The Rinne test (/?r?n?/ RIN-?) is a hearing test, primarily for evaluating loss of hearing in one ear (unilateral hearing loss). It compares perception of sounds transmitted by air conduction to those transmitted by bone conduction through the mastoid.

question

audiologist

answer

Audiologists are health-care professionals who evaluate, diagnose, treat, and manage hearing loss, tinnitus, and balance disorders in newborn, children, and adults. Audiology is a well-respected and highly recognized profession.

question

tinnitus

answer

ringing or buzzing in the ears

question

how do frequencey and amplitude affect how humans interpret sound?

answer

The frequency is how fast the vibrations are being interpreted in our ears. The amplitude is the loudness of the sound, or the force.

question

What causes different types of hearing loss?

answer

There can be things that block off the nerves in the inner ear(Conductive), there can be things that damage nerves the inner ear, like bacterial meningitis, excessive loud noise, or physical damage to the head/ear(Sensorineural), and there can be problems with both the middle and inner ear.

question

how is hearing loss diagnosed ?

answer

You can test by physically looking inside the ear to see if the middle ear is blocked, you can take a tuning fork test(Tests Conductive and Sensorineural), and you can take an Audiometer test(wear earphones and listen to certain sounds at different frequencies, etc.)

question

What interventions are available for patients with hearing loss?

answer

There are hearing aids, that you can wear on the outside of your ear, and there are cochlear implants, that are inserted into your ear and stimulate the cochlea directly.

question

What are the bio ethical concerns related to the use of cochlear implant technology?

answer

Many people would say that deafness is an impairment and it needs to be fixed, if it can. Others would say that being deaf isn't an impairment, but it is something unique to that specific person.

question

vaccination

answer

treatment with a vaccine to produce immunity against a disease; inoculation.

question

How does a vaccine activate the body's immune system?

answer

It provides the antigens necessary for the body to recognize a threat and so the memory t cells remember it in case it presents itself in the future

question

How has vaccination impacted disease trends in our country?

answer

it has eliminated things like polio and smallpox, herd immunity

question

What methods are used to produce vaccines in the laboratory?

answer

live attenuated (weakened), killed or inactivated, toxoid, genetically engineered, DNA

question

What is recombinant DNA technology?

answer

DNA that has been altered and put into new combinations by researchers / the process of cutting and recombining DNA fragments

question

What are the molecular tools used to assemble recombinant DNA?

answer

scissors/restriction enzyme, glue/ligase

question

How can recombinant DNA and bacterial cells be used to produce vaccines?

answer

Recombinant DNA technology is the process of cutting and recombining DNA fragments. Bacteria carry DNA in plasmids, which are rings of DNA that contain DNA sequences that include areas for the ori and antibiotic resistance.

question

How can engineered plasmids be inserted into bacterial cells?

answer

There are primarily three methods, conjugation (transfer of info using pilli), transduction (transfer of info by bactriophages), and transformation (uptake of DNA from outside the cell). I

question

epidemiolody

answer

Epidemiology is a branch of medicine that deals with the control of diseases and other factors encompassing health. They research the causes of health issues, and how they could be improved.

question

How can epidemiologists assist with the detection, prevention, and treatment of both chronic and infectious disease?

answer

They can provide the quantitative evidence for justifying needed policies. Also, their input can be helpful in demonstrating the effectiveness of policies once they have been adopted.

question

Case-Control Study

answer

A type of epidemiologic study where a group of individuals with the diseases, referred to as cases, are compared to individuals without the disease, referred to as controls

question

cohort study

answer

A type of epidemiologic study where a group of exposed individuals (individuals who have been exposed to the potential risk factor) and a group of non-exposed individuals are followed over time to determine the incidence of disease

question

genetic counseling

answer

A process of communication that deals with the occurrence or risk that a genetic disorder will occur in a family

question

How would a genetic counselor use a pedigree to help his or her clients understand genetic diseases?

answer

Pedigrees show the route in which genetic diseases take as far as the inheritance in involved. A genetic counselor would use a pedigree to show the inheritance of a certain genetic disease/disorder in a particular family.

question

Explain why parents may be fearful or apprehensive about genetic testing.

answer

Some parents may be afraid to find out if their child has a genetic disease/disorder before he/she is born. It could put a good amount of stress on both parents during the pregnancy.

question

How might factors such as income and access to medical insurance, influence a couple's genetic testing and reproductive decisions?

answer

A couple could go into genetic counseling to see their chances of having a child with a genetic disease/disorder. If their chances are high, the couple may decide to just not have a child, possibly due to an inability to afford the child's special needs or due to lack of medical insurance.

question

What is the purpose of PCR?

answer

To copy a certain sequence of DNA; because significant amounts of a sample of DNA are necessary for molecular and genetic analyses, studies of isolated pieces of DNA are nearly impossible without PCR amplification.

question

Taq polymerase

answer

amplify DNAs in PCR

question

DNA primer

answer

A primer is a short strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 18-22 bases) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. It is required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA.

question

what are dna nucleotides of dntps

answer

Nucleotides (dNTPs or deoxynucleotide triphosphates) - single units of the bases A, T, G, and C, which are essentially "building blocks" for new DNA strands.

question

what is amniocentesis

answer

Amniocentesis is a diagnostic test carried out during pregnancy. It can assess whether the unborn baby (fetus) could develop, or has developed, an abnormality or serious health condition.

question

what is chorionic villus sampling

answer

CVS - small samples taken from the placenta transcervically or transabdominally

question

Amniocentesis advantages

answer

Specific measures of amniotic fluid levels of alphafetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase for evaluation of neural tube defects Also evaluates fetal lung maturity

question

Amniocentesis advantages

answer

Specific measures of amniotic fluid levels of alphafetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase for evaluation of neural tube defects Also evaluates fetal lung maturity

question

what are SNPs

answer

A Single Nucleotide Polymorphism. They are single-nucleotide substitutions of one base for another To be classified as a SNP, it must be present in at least 1% of the population. SNPs occur throughout the human genome 10 million (or one in every 300 base pairs.)

question

How are restriction enzymes and electrophoresis used to identify SNPs and determine genotype?

answer

Restriction enzymes cuts the DNA and if there is a SNP the DNA will be cut in different places or not at all. Gel electrophoresis allows us to visually see and compare the results.

question

What can amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling tell a couple about their developing fetus?

answer

We use these techniques to take a karyotype and other genetic tests to verify that there are no genetic diseases • Chorionic Villi testing can be done earlier, taking cells from the placenta using one of two methods • Amniocentesis is done later with slightly less risk of miscarriage from the amniotic fluid

question

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using viral vectors for gene therapy?

answer

Some disadvantages of using viral vectors are that the new gene may be inserted in the wrong DNA location. An advantage of using viral vectors is that some viruses a=can transfer good genes into the human cell.

question

What factors must be considered when choosing a vector for a gene therapy trial?

answer

the side effects will cause an immune response or allergic reaction.

question

A young boy suffers from Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1), a genetic nervous system disorder that causes tumors to grow around nerve cells. The gene for NF1, approximately 8,400 base pairs long, is located on chromosome 11. What is the best candidate for a vector for gene therapy in this case? Provide evidence from your research to support your choice.

answer

The keys to solving this problem are: 1) the type of cell that is the target of the vector [nerve cell] 2) the characteristics of the target cell [nerve cells do not divide] 3) the length of the gene to be carried by the vector [8,400 base pairs] ---->Sounds like Herpes Simplex Virus would be an appropriate vector.

question

Many athletes and administrators fear the widespread use of gene doping - the use of gene therapy to modify genes that improve athletic performance. Describe at least two genetic modifications that would improve the performance of an athlete. Make sure to mention the body system(s) affected as well as the specific goal of the therapy.

answer

Increases strength of athletes muscles.Could inject a gene that generates testosterone. HGH or muscle-strengthening protein

question

reproductive endocrinologist

answer

a branch of medicine that identifies and treats infertility in both men and women.

question

andrologist

answer

is the medical specialty that deals with male health, particularly relating to the problems of the male reproductive system and urological problems that are unique to men.

question

What is the difference between reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning?

answer

Reproductive cloning is to make a new human life form, while therapeutic cloning is to create stem cells that are genetically compatible with the recipient

question

metastsis

answer

the development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary site of cancer.

question

how can hela cells have an abnormal number or structure of chromosomes?

answer

HeLa cells have 46+ chromosomes because papilatoma virus chromosome combines with human chromosome normal amount is 70-90 chromosomes

question

. How can studying genes give us more information about cancer?

answer

Cancers are caused when cells divide too rapidly, and are dividing without correcting mistakes in the DNA (mutations). We have protective genes in our cells which control the rate of division, fix problems with DNA, or even kill the cell if it too damaged. When these protective proteins are gone or not working right, that is when we get cancer. So by finding out more about these proteins (and the genes which encode them) we can discover more about specific types and causes of cancer.

question

microarray

answer

expression in genes or lack of expression (degree or quantity)

question

how do dna microarrays measure

answer

DNA microarrays measure the number and amount of genes turned on and off in cancer cells vs. normal cells We can do this by collecting mRNA from the cells, which will only be made if the genes are turned on We can also determine if there is a correlation between genes interacting with each other

question

how do pyrimidine antagonists work

answer

act as a decoy or fraudulent pyrimidine base which inhibits important enzymes in the pyrimidine cycle

question

how can viruses cause cancer

answer

by altering the genetic make up of cells

question

Haplotype

answer

is a set of DNA variations, or polymorphisms, that tend to be inherited together. A haplotype can refer to a combination of alleles or to a set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found on the same chromosome.

question

Thiopurines methyltransfere

answer

an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the TPMT gene. A pseudogene for this locus is located on chromosome 18q.

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