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Statement

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The smallest independent unit in the language. (Sentence)

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Declaration statement

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introduce new names into the current scope. These names can be: Type names (class, struct, union, enum, typedef, and pointer-to-member). Object names. Function names.

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Expressions

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A combination of literals, variables, functions, and operators that evaluates to a value.

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Functions

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A function is a collection of statements that executes sequentially.

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Library

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A library is a collection of precompiled code (e.g. functions) that has been "packaged up" for reuse in many different programs.

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Preprocessor directive

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Preprocessor directives tell the compiler to perform a special task.

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Object

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An object is a piece of memory that can be used to store values.

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Variable

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A variable in C++ is simply an object that has a name.

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L-value

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An l-value is a value that has a persistent address (in memory). Since all variables have addresses, all variables are l-values.

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R-value

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An r-value refers to values that are not associated with a persistent memory address. Examples of r-values are single numbers (such as 5, which evaluates to 5) and expressions (such as 2 + x, which evaluates to the value of variable x plus 2). r-values are generally temporary in nature and are discarded at the end of the statement in which they occur.

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Initialization

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Define a variable AND give it an initial value in the same step.

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Manipulators

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Manipulators are functions specifically designed to be used in conjunction with the insertion (<>) operators on stream objects

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Buffer

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Buffer is a generic term that refers to a block of memory that serves as a temporary placeholder.

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Namespaces

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Namespaces provide a method for preventing name conflicts in large projects.

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Function

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A function is a reusable sequence of statements designed to do a particular job.

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Identifier

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The name of a variable, function, type, or other kind of object in C++

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Literal

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A fixed value that has been inserted (hardcoded) directly into the source code, such as 5, or 3.14159. Literals always evaluate to themselves.

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Operands

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Literals, variables, and function calls that return values

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Operators

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Tell the expression how to combine one or more operands to produce a new result.

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Definition

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Implements or instantiates (causes memory to be allocated for) the identifier.

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Declaration

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A statement that announces an identifier (variable or function name) and its type.

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Directives

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Specific instructions that start with a # symbol and end with a newline

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Signed

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Can hold both positive and negative values

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Unsigned

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Can only hold positive values

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Overflow

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occurs when bits are lost because a variable has not been allocated enough memory to store them.

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Literal constants

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Values inserted directly into the code. They are constants because you can't change their values.

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constexpr

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Ensures that the constant must be a compile-time constant

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operator precedence

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The order in which operators are evaluated in a compound expression

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Exponents in C++

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#include the header, and use the pow() function

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unary operators

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operators that only take one operand

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if (condition) expression; else other_expression;

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(condition) ? expression : other_expression;

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Bitwise operators

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When evaluating bitwise OR, if any bit in a column is 1, the result for that column is 1. When evaluating bitwise AND, if all bits in a column are 1, the result for that column is 1. When evaluating bitwise XOR, if there are an odd number of 1 bits in a column, the result for that column is 1.

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bit flags

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A flag is a predefined bit or bit sequence that holds a binary value

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Block of statements "compound statements"

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A group of statements that is treated by the compiler as if it were a single statement.

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global scope operator (::)

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Can be used to tell the compiler you mean the global version instead of the local version.

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prefix global variable names

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"g_" to indicate that they are global

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linkage

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Determines whether multiple instances of an identifier refer to the same variable or not.

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A variable with internal linkage is called an internal variable

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Can be used anywhere within the file they are defined in, but can not be referenced outside the file they exist in.

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A variable with external linkage is called an external variable

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Variables with external linkage can be used both in the file they are defined in, as well as in other files.

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static keyword

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To make a global variable internal (able to be used only within a single file)

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extern keyword

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to make a global variable external (able to be used anywhere in our program)

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File scope vs. global scope

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Technically, in C++, all global variables in C++ have "file scope". However, informally, the term "file scope" is more often applied to file scope variables with internal linkage only, and "global scope" to file scope variables with external linkage.

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static duration variable

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one that retains its value even after the scope in which it has been created has been exited

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use "s_"

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to prefix static (static duration) variables.

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What effect does using keyword "static" have on a global variable? What effect does it have on a local variable?

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When applied to a global variable, the static keyword defines the global variable as having internal linkage, meaning the variable cannot be exported to other files. When applied to a local variable, the static keyword defines the local variable as having static duration, meaning the variable will only be created once, and will not be destroyed until the end of the program.

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automatic duration

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created at the point of definition, and destroyed when the block they are part of is exited.

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static duration

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created when the program begins and destroyed when the program ends. This includes: Global variables Static local variables

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dynamic duration

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are created and destroyed by programmer request. This includes: Dynamically allocated variables

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Namespaces can be nested inside other namespaces

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we access g_x as Foo::Goo::g_x

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implicit type conversion

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where the compiler automatically transforms one fundamental data type into another

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explicit type conversions

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where the developer uses a casting operator to direct the conversion

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numeric promotion (widening)

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Whenever a value from one type is converted into a value of a larger similar data type

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Integral promotion

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involves the conversion of integer types narrower than int (which includes bool, char, unsigned char, signed char, unsigned short, signed short) to an integer (if possible) or an unsigned int.

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Floating point promotion

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involves the conversion of a float to a double.

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numeric conversion

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When we convert a value from a larger type to a similar smaller type, or between different types

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cast

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represents an explicit request by the programmer to do a type

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Rule: Avoid C-style casts

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Because C-style casts are not checked by the compiler at compile time, C-style casts can be inherently misused, because they will let you do things that may not make sense, such as getting rid of a const or changing a data type without changing the underlying representation (leading to garbage results).

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What's the difference between implicit and explicit type conversion?

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Implicit type conversion happens when the compiler is expecting a value of one type but is given a value another type. Explicit type conversion happens when the user uses a type cast to convert a value from one type to another type.

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the enum class (also called a scoped enumeration)

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makes enumerations both strongly typed and strongly scoped. To make an enum class, we use the keyword class after the enum keyword.

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Typedef

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allow the programmer to create an alias for a data type, and use the aliased name instead of the actual type name. To declare a typedef, simply use the typedef keyword, followed by the type to alias, followed by the alias name

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execution path

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The sequence of statements that the CPU executes

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control flow statements

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allow the programmer to change the CPU's path through the program

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null statement

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A statement with no body (just ;)

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pseudo-random number generator (PRNG)

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is a program that takes a starting number (called a seed), and performs mathematical operations on it to transform it into some other number that appears to be unrelated to the seed.

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robust

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A program that handles error cases well

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buffer

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s simply a piece of memory set aside for storing data temporarily while it's moved from one place to another.

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input validation

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The process of checking whether user input conforms to what the program is expecting

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