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have shown promise as beginnings of gum elastic. include the gum elastic fig ( Ficus elastica ) . Panama gum elastic tree ( Castilla elastica ) . assorted spurges ( Euphorbia spp. ) . boodle ( Lactuca species ) . the related Scorzonera tau-saghyz. assorted Taraxacum species. including common blowball ( Taraxacum officinale ) and Russian blowball ( Taraxacum Russian dandelion ) . and Parthenium argentatum ( Parthenium argentatum ) . The term gum gum elastic is sometimes applied to the tree-obtained version of natural gum elastic in order to separate it from the man-made version. [ 1 ] Discovery of commercial possible [ edit ]

The Para rubber tree is autochthonal to South America. Charles Marie de La Condamine is credited with presenting samples of gum elastic to the Academie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736. [ 3 ] In 1751. he presented a paper by Francois Fresneau to the Academie ( finally published in 1755 ) which described many of the belongingss of gum elastic. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on gum elastic. [ 3 ] In England. Joseph Priestley. in 1770. observed that a piece of the stuff was highly good for rubbing off pencil Markss on paper. hence the name “rubber” . Later. it easy made its manner around England. South America remained the chief beginning of the limited sums of latex gum elastic used during much of the nineteenth century.

In 1876. Henry Wickham gathered 1000s of Para rubber tree seeds from Brazil. and these were germinated in Kew Gardens. England. The seedlings were so sent to India. Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) . Indonesia. Singapore.

and British Malaya. Malaya ( now Malaysia ) was subsequently to go the biggest manufacturer of gum elastic. In the early 1900s. the Congo Free State in Africa was besides a important beginning of natural gum elastic latex. largely gathered by forced labour. Liberia and Nigeria besides started production of gum elastic. In India. commercial cultivation of natural gum elastic was introduced by the British plantation owners. although the experimental attempts to turn gum elastic on a commercial graduated table in India were initiated every bit early as 1873 at the Botanical Gardens. Calcutta. The first commercial Hevea plantations in India were established at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902.

In Singapore and Malaya. commercial production of gum elastic was to a great extent promoted by Sir Henry Nicholas Ridley. who served as the first Scientific Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens from 1888 to 1911. He distributed gum elastic seeds to many plantation owners and developed the first technique for tapping trees for latex without doing serious injury to the tree. [ 4 ] Because of his really ardent publicity of this harvest. he is popularly remembered by the nickname “Mad Ridley” . [ 5 ] Properties [ edit ]

Rubber latex Rubber exhibits alone physical and chemical belongingss. Rubber’s stress-strain behaviour exhibits the Mullins consequence and the Payne consequence. and is frequently modeled as hyperelastic. Rubber strain crystallizes. Owing to the presence of a dual bond in each repetition unit. natural gum elastic is susceptible to vulcanization and sensitive to ozone snap. The two chief dissolvers for gum elastic are turpentine and naphtha ( crude oil ) .

The former has been in usage since 1764 when

Francois Fresnau made the find. Giovanni Fabbroni is credited with the find of naphtha as a gum elastic dissolver in 1779. Because gum elastic does non fade out easy. the stuff is finely divided by tear uping prior to its submergence. An ammonia solution can be used to forestall the curdling of natural latex while it is being transported from its aggregation site. Elasticity [ edit ]

In most elastic stuffs. such as metals used in springs. the elastic behaviour is caused by bond deformations. When force is applied. bond lengths pervert from the ( minimal energy ) equilibrium and strain energy is stored electrostatically. Rubber is frequently assumed to act in the same manner. but this is a hapless description. Rubber is a funny stuff because. unlike in metals. strive energy is stored thermally. In its relaxed province. gum elastic consists of long. coiled-up ironss. When gum elastic is stretched. the ironss are tight. Their kinetic energy is released as heat. The information and temperature additions during elongation but decreases during relaxation. This alteration in information is related to the alterations in grades of freedom.

Relaxation of a stretched gum elastic set is therefore driven by a lessening in information and temperature. and the force experienced is a consequence of the chilling of the stuff being converted to possible energy. Rubber relaxation isendothermic. and for this ground the force exerted by a stretched piece of gum elastic additions with temperature. The stuff undergoes adiabatic chilling during contraction. This belongings of gum elastic can easy be verified by keeping a stretched gum elastic set to one’s lips and loosen uping it. Stretching of a gum elastic set

is in some ways opposite to compaction ( although both undergo higher degrees of thermic energy of an ideal gas ) . and relaxation is opposed to gas enlargement ( Note: gum elastic sets last longer in the cold ) .

A tight and heated gas besides exhibits “elastic” belongingss. for case inside an hyperbolic auto tyre. The fact that stretching is tantamount to compaction is counterintuitive. but it makes sense if gum elastic is viewed as a unidimensional gas. plus it is attached to other molecules. Stretching and heat addition the “space” available to each subdivision of concatenation. because the molecules are pulled apart.

Vulcanization of gum elastic creates disulfide bonds between ironss. so it limits the grades of freedom. The consequence is that the ironss tighten more rapidly for a given strain. thereby increasing the elastic force invariable and doing no-good harder and less extensile. When cooled below the glass passage temperature. the quasifluid concatenation sections “freeze” into fixed geometries and the gum elastic suddenly loses its elastic belongingss. although the procedure is reversible. This belongings it shared by most elastomers. At really low temperatures. gum elastic is instead brickle. This critical temperature is the ground winter tyres use a softer version of gum elastic than normal tyres. The failing gum elastic o-ring seals that contributed to the cause of the Challenger catastrophe were thought to hold cooled below their critical temperature ; the catastrophe happened on an remarkably cold twenty-four hours.

The gas molecules in the gum elastic were excessively close to their edge solid molecules ( a partial stage alteration that separated the gum elastic molecules may hold occurred ) . leting the gum

elastic to take on a more solid form ( a partial stage alteration to a more liquid and molecularly detached signifier would non be good. either ) . Heated gas has a higher energy. and rubber must be kept at specific temperatures and likely should non be used on vehicles that undergo utmost temperature alterations. Chemical make-up [ edit ]

Latex is the polymer cis-1. 4-polyisoprene – with a molecular weight of 100. 000 to 1. 000. 000 Daltons. Typically. a little per centum ( up to 5 % of dry mass ) of other stuffs. such as proteins. fatty acids. rosins. and inorganic stuffs ( salts ) are found in natural gum elastic. Polyisoprene can besides be created synthetically. bring forthing what is sometimes referred to as “synthetic natural rubber” . but the man-made and natural paths are wholly different. [ 1 ]

Chemical construction of cis-polyisoprene. the chief component of natural gum elastic: Man-made cis-polyisoprene and natural cis-polyisoprene are derived from different precursors. Some natural gum elastic beginnings. such as gutta-percha. are composed of trans-1. 4-polyisoprene. a structural isomer that has similar. but non indistinguishable. belongingss. Natural gum elastic is an elastomer and a thermoplastic. Once the gum elastic is vulcanized. it will turn into a thermoset. Most gum elastic in mundane usage is vulcanized to a point where it portions belongingss of both ; i. e. . if it is heated and cooled. it is degraded but non destroyed. The concluding belongingss of a gum elastic point depend non merely on the polymer. but besides on qualifiers and fillers. such as C black. factice. whiting. and a host of others. Biosynthesis [ edit ]

Rubber

atoms are formed in the cytol of specialised latex-producing cells called laticifers within gum elastic workss. [ 6 ] Rubber atoms are surrounded by a individual phospholipid membrane with hydrophobic dress suits pointed inward. The membrane allows biosynthetic proteins to be sequestered at the surface of the turning gum elastic atom. which allows new monomeric units to be added from outside the biomembrane. but within the lacticifer. The gum elastic atom is an enzymatically active entity that contains three beds of stuff. the gum elastic atom. a biomembrane. and free monomeric units. The biomembrane is held tightly to the gum elastic nucleus due to the high negative charge along the dual bonds of the gum elastic polymer anchor. [ 7 ]

Free monomeric units and conjugated proteins make up the outer bed. The gum elastic precursor is isopentenyl pyrophosphate ( an allylic compound ) . which elongates by Mg2+-dependent condensation by the action of gum elastic transferase. The monomer adds to the pyrophosphate terminal of the turning polymer. [ 8 ] The procedure displaces the terminal high-energy pyrophosphate. The reaction produces a Commonwealth of Independent States polymer. The initiation measure is catalyzed by prenyltransferase. which converts three monomers of isopentenyl pyrophosphate into farnesyl pyrophosphate. [ 9 ] The farnesyl pyrophosphate can adhere to rubber transferase to stretch a new gum elastic polymer.

The needed isopentenyl pyrophosphate is obtained from the mevalonate tract. which is derives from acetyl-CoA in the cytosol. In workss. isoprene pyrophosphate can besides be obtained from 1-deox-D-xyulose-5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate tract within plasmids. [ 10 ] The comparative ratio of the farnesyl pyrophosphate instigator unit and isoprenyl pyrophosphate elongation monomer determines the rate of new atom synthesis

versus elongation of bing atoms. Though gum elastic is known to be produced by merely one enzyme. infusions of latex have shown legion little molecular weight proteins with unknown map. The proteins perchance serve as cofactors. as the man-made rate lessenings with complete remotion. [ 11 ] Current beginnings [ edit ]

Near to 21 million dozenss of gum elastic were produced in 2005. of which about 42 % was natural. Since the majority of the gum elastic produced is of the man-made assortment. which is derived from crude oil. the monetary value of natural gum elastic is determined. to a big extent. by the prevailing planetary monetary value of rough oil. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Today. Asia is the chief beginning of natural gum elastic. accounting for approximately 94 % of end product in 2005. The three largest bring forthing states. Thailand. Indonesia ( 2. 4m dozenss ) [ 14 ] and Malaysia. together history for around 72 % of all natural gum elastic production. Natural gum elastic is non cultivated widely in its native continent of South America due to the being of South American foliage blight. and other natural marauders of the gum elastic tree. Cultivation [ edit ]

Rubber is by and large cultivated in big plantations. See the coconut shell used in roll uping latex. in plantations in Kerala. India Rubber latex is extracted from gum elastic trees. The economic life period of gum elastic trees in plantations is around 32 old ages – up to 7 old ages of immature stage and about 25 old ages of productive stage. The dirt demand of the works is by and large

well-drained. weathered dirt dwelling of laterite. lateritic types. sedimentary types. nonlateritic ruddy. or alluvial dirts. The climatic conditions for optimal growing of gum elastic trees are: Rain of around 250 centimeter equally distributed without any pronounced dry season and with at least 100 showery yearss per twelvemonth Temperature scope of approximately 20 to 34°C. with a monthly mean of 25 to 28°C High atmospheric humidness of around 80 %

Bright sunlight amounting to about 2000 hours per twelvemonth at the rate of six hours per twenty-four hours throughout the twelvemonth Absence of strong air currents Many high-yielding ringers have been developed for commercial planting. These ringers yield more than 2. 000 kilogram of dry gum elastic per hectare per twelvemonth. when adult under ideal conditions.

Field clot [ edit ]

Assorted field clot

Smallholder’s ball at a remilling mill There are four types of field clot. “cuplump” . “treelace” . “smallholders’ lump” and “earth scrap” . Each has significantly different belongingss. [ 15 ] Cuplump is the curdled stuff found in the aggregation cup when the tapster following visits the tree to tap it once more. It arises from latex cleaving to the walls of the cup after the latex was last poured into the pail. and from late-dripping latex exuded before the latex-carrying vass of the tree become blocked. It is of higher pureness and of greater value than the other three types.

Treelace is the clot strip that the tapster peels off the old cut before doing a new cut. It normally has higher Cu and manganese contents than cuplump. Both Cu and manganese are pro-oxidants and can take down the physical belongingss of the dry gum elastic.

Smallholders’ ball is produced by smallholders who collect rubber from trees a long manner off from the nearest mill. Many Indonesian smallholders. who grow Paddy in distant countries. pat dispersed trees on their manner to work in the Paddy Fieldss and roll up the latex ( or the curdled latex ) on their manner place.

As it is frequently impossible to continue the latex sufficiently to acquire it to a mill that processes latex in clip for it to be used to do high quality merchandises. and as the latex would anyhow hold coagulated by the clip it reached the mill. the smallholder will clot it by any agencies available. in any container available. Some smallholders use little containers. pails etc. . but frequently the latex is coagulated in holes in the land. which are normally ( but non ever ) lined with plastic. Acidic stuffs and fermented fruit juices are used to clot the latex – a signifier of aided biological curdling. Little attention is taken to except branchlets. foliages. and even bark from the balls that are formed. which may besides include treelace collected by the smallholder. Earth bit is the stuff that gathers around the base of the tree.

It arises from latex overruning from the cut and running down the bark of the tree. from rain deluging a aggregation cup incorporating latex. and from spillage from tappers’ pails during aggregation. It contains dirt and other contaminations. and has variable gum elastic content depending on the sum of contaminations assorted with it. Earth bit is collected by the field workers two or three times a twelvemonth and may be cleaned in a scrap-washer to

retrieve the gum elastic. or sold off to a contractor who will clean it and retrieve the gum elastic. It is of really low quality and under no fortunes should it be included in block gum elastic or brown crepe. Processing [ edit ]

Removing clot from cloting troughs
The latex will clot in the cups if kept for long. The latex has to be collected before curdling. The gathered latex. “field latex” . is transferred into curdling armored combat vehicles for the readying of dry gum elastic or transferred into airtight containers with screening for ammoniation. Ammoniation is necessary to continue the latex in colloidal province for long. Latex is by and large processed into either latex dressed ore for industry of lordotic goods or it can be coagulated under controlled. clean conditions utilizing formic acid.

The curdled latex can so be processed into the higher-grade. technically specified block gum elastics such as SVR 3L or SVR CV or used to bring forth Ribbed Smoke Sheet classs. Naturally curdled gum elastic ( cup ball ) is used in the industry of TSR10 and TSR20 grade gum elastics. The processing of the gum elastic for these classs is a size decrease and cleansing procedure to take taint and fix the stuff for the concluding phase of drying. [ 16 ] The dried stuff is so baled and palletized for storage and cargo in assorted methods of transit. Transportation [ edit ]

Natural gum elastic latex is shipped from mills in south-west Asia. South America. and North Africa to destinations around the universe. As the cost of natural gum elastic has risen significantly. the transportation methods which offer the lowest

cost per unit of weight are preferred. Depending on the finish. warehouse handiness. and transit conditions. some methods are more suited to certain purchasers than others. In international trade. latex gum elastic is largely shipped in 20-foot ocean containers. Inside the ocean container. assorted types of smaller containers are used by mills to hive away latex gum elastic. [ 17 ] Uses [ edit ]

Compaction molded ( cured ) rubber boots before the flashesare removed Contemporary fabrication [ edit ]

Around 25 million metric tons of gum elastic is produced each twelvemonth. of which 42 per centum is natural gum elastic. The balance is man-made gum elastic derived from petrochemical beginnings. Around 70 per centum of the world’s natural gum elastic is used in tyres. The top terminal of latex production consequences in latex merchandises such as surgeons’ baseball mitts. rubbers. balloons and other comparatively high-value merchandises.

The mid-range which comes from the technically-specified natural gum elastic stuffs ends up mostly in tyres but besides in conveyer belts. Marine merchandises and assorted gum elastic goods. Natural gum elastic offers good snap. while man-made stuffs tend to offer better opposition to environmental factors such as oils. temperature. chemicals or UV visible radiation and suchlike. “Cured rubber” is rubber which has been compounded and subjected to the vulcanization procedure which creates cross-links within the gum elastic matrix. Prehistoric utilizations [ edit ]

The first usage of gum elastic was by the Olmecs. who centuries subsequently passed on the cognition of natural latex from the Hevea tree in 1600 BC to the ancient Mayans. They boiled the harvested latex to do a ball for a Mesoamerican ballgame. [ 18 ] Pre-World

War II fabrication [ edit ]

Other important utilizations of gum elastic are door and window profiles. hosieries. belts. gaskets. entangling. flooring. and moisteners ( antivibration saddle horses ) for the automotive industry. Baseball gloves ( medical. family and industrial ) and toy balloons are besides big consumers of gum elastic. although the type of gum elastic used is concentrated latex. Significant tunnage of gum elastic is used as adhesives in many fabrication industries and merchandises. although the two most noticeable are thepaper and the rug industries. Rubber is besides normally used to do gum elastic sets and pencil erasers. Pre-World War II fabric applications [ edit ]

Rubber produced as a fibre. sometimes called ‘elastic’ . has important value for usage in the fabric industry because of its first-class elongation and recovery belongingss. For these intents. manufactured no-good fibre is made as either an extruded unit of ammunition fibre or rectangular fibres that are cut into strips from extruded movie. Because of its low dye credence. feel and visual aspect. the gum elastic fibre is either covered by narration of another fibre or straight woven with other narrations into the cloth. In the early 1900s. for illustration. rubber narrations were used in foundation garments.

While gum elastic is still used in fabric fabrication. its low doggedness limits its usage in lightweight garments because latex deficiencies opposition to oxidising agents and is damaged by aging. sunshine. oil. and sweat. Seeking a manner to turn to these defects. the fabric industry has turned to neoprene ( polymer of chloroprene ) . a type of man-made gum elastic. every bit good as another more normally used elastomer fibre. spandex (

besides known as elastane ) . because of their high quality to rubber in both strength and lastingness. Vulcanization [ edit ]

Chief article: Vulcanization Natural gum elastic is frequently vulcanized. a procedure by which the gum elastic is heated and sulfur. peroxide or bisphenol are added to better opposition and snap. and to forestall it from diing. The development of vulcanisation is most closely associated with Charles Goodyear in 1839. [ 19 ] Before World War II epoch fabrication. C black was frequently used as an linear to rubber to better its strength. particularly in vehicle tyres. Today. all vehicle tyres are made of man-made gum elastics. Allergic reactions [ edit ]

Chief article: Latex allergy Some people have a serious latex allergic reaction. and exposure to natural latex gum elastic merchandises such as latex baseball mitts can do anaphylactic daze. The antigenic proteins found in Hevealatex may be intentionally reduced ( though non eliminated ) [ 20 ] through processing. Latex from non-Hevea beginnings. such as Guayule. can be used without allergic reaction by individuals with an allergic reaction to Hevea latex. [ 21 ] Some allergic reactions are non to the latex itself. but from residues of chemicals used to speed up the cross-linking procedure. Although this may be confused with an allergic reaction to latex. it is distinguishable from it. typically taking the signifier of Type IV hypersensitivity in the presence of hints of specific processing chemicals. [ 20 ] [ 22 ]