History – 617 words – Flashcard
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Black Panthers
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Led by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton, they believed that racism was an inherent part of the U.S. capitalist society and were militant, self-styled revolutionaries for Black Power.
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Coordinating Council of Community Organizations(CCCO) (est. 1962)
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Black students and parents sat-in against overcrowded schools, pursued legal action against school segregation. CCCO harnessed unrest to organise two large-scale school boycotts in 1963&4. Worked with SCLC in mid-1960s but changes were never realised - impotence of SCLC's model in Northern Cities.
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Chicago Freedom Movement
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1966 - Organised by the SCLC, but riots broke out quickly. King tried to enforce peaceful protest. On the Gage Park Marc, King was attacked with rocks. Chicago's mayor restricted future marches. -Significant because a) Chicago's black citizens turned to more radical leadership b)failed to win support from the churches c)No federal involvement because of King's opposition to the Vietnam war d)Social and economic change required high levels of federal involvement.
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Operation Breadbasket
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1962 - founded as a department of the SCLC, first in the South. Jesse Jackson key figure. Key method was boycotting to pressure white businesses to hire blacks and purchase goods/services from black contractors. Used persuasive power of black ministers and organising strength of churches to spread message. Particularly successful in Chicago Campaign. Opened $15m of income to black workers.
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March Against Fear
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1966 - James Meredith started a solitary march for 220 miles from Memphis, Tennessee, to Jackson, Mississippi, to protest against racism. Soon after starting his march he was shot by a sniper with birdshot, injuring him. When they heard the news, other civil rights campaigners, including SCLC's Martin Luther King, SNCC's Stokely Carmichael, Cleveland Sellers and Floyd McKissick, as well as the Human Rights Medical Committee and other civil rights organizations decided to continue the march in Meredith's name.
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H. Rap Brown
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Chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and later the Black Panther Party. Helped promote Black Power and symbolized the fracturing of the Civil Rights movement.
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Eldridge Cleaver
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First involved in SNCC, chairman in 1967. Abandoned pacifist beliefs in 1968, joining the Black Panther Party, became editor of the party's newspaper. Represents a growing shift in the 1960s of turning away from pacifism and towards militancy, self-defence and
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Poor People's Campaign
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A rally and movement led by Martin Luther King, who believed that a new focus on attacking economic issues, which he believed would lead to militant movements, was crucially important to solving the discrimination. He led this, as well as a march with the same name, to unify not only blacks, but poor white people, who had much more in common with most of the black population than they did with the middle and upper classes of whites.
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"I Am A Man"
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Civil Rights Act of 1968
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Also known as Indian Civil Rights Act. Signed in by LBJ during King assassination riots. Provided equal housing opportunities regardless of race, creed, or national origin. Expanded previous acts: prohibited discrimination concerning sale, rental and financing of housing. Did not include gender provision until 1974. Following in trend of 1964 Civil Rights Act.
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Regents v. Bakke
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A 1978 Supreme Court decision holding that a state university could not admit less qualified individuals solely because of their race.
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"Black Manifesto"
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In 1969 James Foreman called on American's churches and synagogues to collect $500 million as a "beginning of the reparations due us as a people who have been exploited and degraded for the color"
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Southern Conference for Human Welfare
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est. 1938-48. tried to bring New Deal-inspired reforms to the South, based in Birmingham. Wanted to improve social justice and civil rights by instituting electoral reform, repealing the poll tax. Laid groundwork. Proof that the civil rights movement wasn't a 1950s anomaly.
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National Council of Negro Women
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1935 - mission is to advance opportunities & quality of life for black women, their families & community. Brought together sororities, religious & secret societies. Networking, information dissemination, education programs. Worked to increase employment and economic opportunities for black women, including greater participation in the New Deal. Looked to Federal Govt. as possible tool to help end housing discrimination.
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"Abbeville Affair"
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National Emergency Committee Against Mob Violence (NECAMV) (est. 1946)
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Umbrella organisation of civil rights advocates, religious leaders, labour activists in response to spate of recent racially motivated attacks against Af-Ams. Included NAACP, Urban League, Federal Council of Churches, American Federation of Labor. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt member. Aimed to lobby Harry S. Truman to enforce rights of Af-Ams. As a result, executive order establishing panel to investigate situation and propose ways of reducing racial tensions. Led to Pres Committee on Civil Rights, report 'to secure these rights' groundwork for expanding protections of civil rights at federal level
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Willie McGee
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Accused of raping a white woman while holding a knife to her throat. He was convicted after a 3 min deliberation. Later evidence showed that they were having a 3 year affair and she wanted to dispose of him. However, due to the Communist party supplying legal aid and the refusal of the NAACP to associate themselves, he was still executed.
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Civil Rights Conference (CRC) (est. 1946)
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There was a worldwide effort to free Willie McGee (#22) led by the Civil Rights Conference (CRC), a leftist legal defense and protest organization The significance for our course is that this group was part of an international effort to bring justice in McGee's case, as well as to bring attention to the larger issues discussed in Term #22 above. While their combined efforts failed to win justice in McGee's case, and failed to save his life, they still raised the profile of African-American civil rights activism and helped to reveal the horrors of Southern white supremacy to the world
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Martinsville Seven
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Willie McGee (Term #22) was not the first or the last black man executed for allegedly violating the South's racial and sexual rules. On February 2, 1951, officials at the Virginia State Penitentiary executed 7 black men convicted of raping a white woman in Martinsville two years earlier. On January 8, 1949, Ruby Floyd, a white woman, accused the seven black men of raping her. The police rounded up some suspects, and within a matter of days, seven black men sat in jail. By the end of January, the Martinsville Seven had been tried, convicted, and sentenced to death
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Sojourners for Truth and Justice (STJ) (est. 1951)
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COMMUNIST LEFT LED BY AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN A short-lived black women's organization (not as important as the Women's Political Council) dedicated to defending the dignity of black women from abuses of segregation (such as harassment on busses). Aimed to unite black women across social, political & economic lines to end white violence and terror Called a meeting of black women in Washington 1951(could be considered the beginnings of black feminist consciousness raising) to speak their minds about white violence Began a campaign for "protection of black womanhood, dignity & honor". Issued a demand for the release of Rosa Lee Ingram Context = lead up to the Montgomery Bus Boycott/ Civil Rights Movement significance = mobilization of African American women who would later constitute "the backbone" of the bus boycott, they also drew attention to abuses being suffered by black people.
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Rosa Lee Ingram
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Sharecropper and mother of 12 from the deep south who was sentenced to death for killing a white man in self-defense after he beat/sexually assaulted her in 1947 Ingram's son hit the man and accidentally killed him. She was imprisoned Soujourners for Truth and Justice campaigned for her release to end the violence/terror/shame heaped on black women. NAACP also raised funds to fight the court for her release. She was released in 1959. Context = lead up to the Civil Rights Movement significance = She illustrates the second-class citizenship of black women. Shows double oppression of black women - oppressed because they're black and through sexual violence and the threat of sexual violence.
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Club from Nowhere (est. 1955)
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women's club led by excellent cook Georgia Gilmore to raise money for bus boycott (mostly transportation expenses) by cooking and selling pies, cakes, etc. raised hundreds of dollars per week and helped to inspire others to compete and raise more money context = During the montgomery bus boycott when PRIDE replaced FEAR in the black community and they pulled together in the community. significance = the bus boycott would have failed without contributions from working class women like those in Club from Nowhere. But their efforts have been forgotten in history. Club from Nowhere illustrates black women helping the movement in traditionally 'feminine' ways (i.e. cooking)
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"Kissing Case" (1958)
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A legal case brought before the southern court after an innocent kissing game between black boys (8 years old) and white girls (7 years old) was brought to the attention of southern mobs and the klan. Boys were arrested on rape and assault charges, family homes sprayed with bullets by mobs. They were convicted of molestation and sentenced to attend a "training school for negroes". context = BACKLASH - increased white violence (especially in south) against blacks after several successes in CRM (Brown v Board, montgomery bus boycott) significance = exposed the power of sex in maintaining racial hierarchy/white supremacy. Brought the issue of white-on-black rape to public attention (i.e. courts make a HUGE deal about black boys kissing white girls but do not care about white men raping white women)
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Committee to Combat Racial Injustice (CCRI) (est. 1958)
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Organized by NAACP member in North Carolina to wage a publicity campaign against the ridiculousness of the Kissing Case. News media all over Europe grabbed the story, which highlighted the inconsistency between American "democracy" and American reality context = BACKLASH - increased white violence (especially in south) against blacks after several successes in CRM (Brown v Board, montgomery bus boycott) significance = Shows racial hysteria in south. Committee also successfully put pressure on Eisenhower through the MEDIA, which illustrates the ways in which tactics were developing for the social movement (and other later movements).
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Betty Jean Owens
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Southern black high school student from Tallahasse who was kidnapped and raped 7 times by 4 local white youths after Owens and friends had been to a ball in 1959. Owen's friends notify police and 19 year old white policeman in charge of Florida's capital city immediately searches for and arrests the youths On the way to jail the 4 youths joke about/confess to the kidnap and rape Owens has to spend 5 days in hospital for injuries caused by the rape Incident causes HUGE non-violent protest by black students on college campuses why? 1. they could identify with the violence/fear experienced by Owens - "it was like all of us had been raped". 2. black men wanted to protect "their" women. 3. Mack Charles Parker, a black man accused of raping a white women, had been arrested and lynched earlier that year. His killers were not convicted. The two cases together illustrated the belief that white women's purity must be protected while black women's bodies were "free game". At trial Betty made to seem like a middle class "good woman" (as if "bad women" could not be raped - see Free Joan Little Campaign) A lawyer for one of the white youths used his "indian blood" as his defense on the grounds that "the indian race act violently and primitively when intoxicated" Context = BACKLASH - increasing violence against blacks significance = it was the first time white men had been convicted, denied bail for raping a black woman. The incident brought to public attention the vulnerability of black women. The student protest had disrupted Florida's tourism industry, showed black political and economic power in numbers
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Mack Charles Parker
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23 year old man accused of raping a pregnant white woman in 1959. He was arrested, kidnapped from jail by a mob, lynched. His body was found floating in the Pearl River just 2 days after Betty Jean Owen was raped. Ideas this is associated with = the ability of white men to protect the purity of white women was a keystone of white supremacy. His murder contrasted with the Betty Jean Owens case and fuelled the student protests (white women's purity protected, black women's bodies "fair game")
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Rosa Lee Coates
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..A 15 year old black girl raped by a white man. He drove to her neighborhood claiming that he needed a babysitter. When Coates was in his car he drove out to the woods, raped her at knifepoint, and left her alone. He was found guilty and convicted to life imprisonment = 1st time since reconstruction that a white man received life sentence for raping a black woman. The groundbreaking case went largely unnoticed by activists in CRM who were worn out and disillusioned after Freedom Summer Landmark legal victory for black freedom struggles. The guilty verdict was the product of years of black women's testimony against white men that had gone unnoticed and years of campaign to protect black women's bodies and dignity (Reecey Taylor, Betty Jean Owens) Jury decided not to seek the death penalty for Coats' attacker, prompting the NAACP legal defense fund to begin battles for hundreds of black men on death row for rape
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Loving v. Virginia (1967)
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1967 landmark Supreme Court case that overturned miscegenation laws A white man and black woman from Virginia got married in 1958 in Washington (to avoid Virginia's miscegenation laws). They returned to Virginia and were arrested. Released on bail, the couple left the state for 25 years. in 1963 they sought help from NAACP legal defense fund and got their case to supreme court 1967 JUSTICE WARREN overturned miscegenation laws as they violated equal protection under 14th Amendment Context = the intersection of sex and the Civil Rights Movement significance = this case represents the end of one of the last barriers to black women's bodily integrity and their rights to decide their own sexuality
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Free Joan Little campaign
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1974, Joan Little (a 20 year old black woman in prison in North Carolina) murders a white male prison guard with an icepick after he sexually assaults her. She escapes, on the run for several days before turning herself in. She is charged with 1st degree murder and re=imprisoned. the Free Joan Little Campaign was organized by feminist groups, anti-capital punishment groups, rape law reform advocates, religious groups (an intersection of different organizations working together across political, racial, religious boundaries) to free Joan Little Her lawyer presents Joan Little as a victim of the racist environment into which she was born. She was acquitted = unprecedented Context = The civil rights movement. Not all blacks supported her because of her criminal background as they saw this as a negative representation of black womanhood Significance = the core issue of the trial was whether or not a woman's sexual/criminal history has any relevance to her right to say no to rape The campaign also illustrates the importance of image to the CRM and the way in which they either raised women to sainthood (Rosa Parks) or tried to keep a distance from (Joan Little, Claudette Colvin) Also significant because of the broad coalition of supporters that came together to fight for her defense, this reflected the enormous social, political, and economic changes wrought by the civil rights movement, and the emergence of the New Left, and Black Power. But it also showed continuity with the past, mirroring the eclectic group that formed to fight for justice for Recy Taylor. Both were primarily led by African-American women and helped serve as catalysts for larger struggles Also: the stunning verdict of Not Guilty signalled the death knell of the rape of black women by white men (with impunity) that had been a feature of Southern racial politics since slavery
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The Feminine Mystique
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Associations: Book written by Betty Friedan (1963), early Women's movement, gave a name to the "problem that has no name" Context: Notion pervasive in American society that women should be completely fulfilled through their responsibilities and their home, husband, and children (post WWII, redefinition of homemaking as a profession, capitalism versus Soviet Union and communism), but they were actually quietly frustrated and discontent (set of cultural expectations that not every woman could fulfill); daughters of white, middle-class, suburb-dwelling women who were wives/mothers during 1950s and observed/sensed the pervasive discontent; need to address the women who supposedly "had it all" Significance: Exposed discontent bubbling in American society among women in their suburban homes and domestic life, removing the "shameful" connotation and making it a commonality which bonded them and arguably gave impetus to the movement; vast, sweeping impact on many women across the US; one of the earliest publications of feminism; reflected some weaknesses of early women's movement (excludes people of color, heterosexual presumption, didn't challenge allocation of household labor)
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NOWBill of Rights (1968)
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Associations: NOW (National Organization for Women), supported Equal Rights Amendment Context: Beginning of the women's movement; NOW, which became the central feminist association of middle-class women, was organized in 1967 Significance: Called for dramatic changes in American society; enumerated demands to several rights they deemed important for women, mostly focusing on employment rights (e.g. banning sex discrimination, maternity leave rights in employment and in Social Security benefits, child day care centers, equal job training opportunities); also included women's right equal and non-gender-segregated education, and to control reproductive lives (controversial, temporarily splintered movement);
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Title VII [of the Civil Rights Act of 1964]
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Associations: Part of the Civil Rights Act, legislation that created the EEOC, supported by President LBJ and his wife Context: Racial and gender discrimination is pervasive; women faced discrimination in employment simply because of gender; Southern congressman, Smith, added "sex" to this section of the bill that prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, or national origin by private employers; did it to give reason to northern representatives to not pass it, also because if it did pass then it would at least protect southern "white women" Significance: Rosen says it's a legal victory that decisively raised members' sense of entitlement; wasn't taken seriously at first, wasn't enforced --> angered women, including Betty Friedan, helped lead to creation of NOW
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Gerda Lerner
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Associations: CAW, NOW, Organization for American Historians, wrote "The Lady and the Mill Girl" Context: Feminist activist and historian; extremely active leader in the beginning of the women's movement Significance: While she was a founder and key player in many early women's civil rights organizations, the most unique and significant piece is that she is one of the founders of the field of women's history (helped make women's history accessible to leaders and teachers, also helped install National Women's History Month); article described ways in which Industrial Revolution affected women of different classes
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baby boom
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Associations: Depression, WWII Context: Desire for family life after the Depression and WWII --> married earlier, slowed rising divorce rate, reversed county's decline in fertility rate (at its peak in 1957, 4mil babies/year) Significance: Specifically to our theme, the significance is that the baby boom played a huge role in constructing and constricting the new feminine and maternal image of the postwar era; transformed the American landscape
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Congress of American Women (CAW) (est. 1946)
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Associations: US branch of Women's International Democratic Federation, Gerda Lerner, Communism/McCarthyism Context: Post WWII, leftist female activists resuming political work, beginning of several women's civil rights organizations Significance: Members successfully linked women's issues, social justice, and peace with racial equality and economic justice; agenda prefigured much of the women's movement in the 1960s; helped give the "gift" of women's history
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Susan Griffin
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Associations: Ramparts magazine, the New Left Context: New Left movement becomes solidified; women are feeling very frustrated by their subordination from men in the New Left, especially in the popular literature arena (they were paid less, asked to rewrite pieces and received no credit, never gained editorship, never given a position as a full staff writer) Significance: Demonstrated the frustrations of women in the New Left as a female writer for Ramparts magazine; exposed hypocrisies of the New Left movement
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Phyllis Chesler
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Associations: Author of Women and Madness, Second Wave Feminism Context: The feminine mystique is a real thing for many women in American society; women who had "the problem that has no name" were being prescribed medications (tranquilizers) to subdue them; issues between women within the movement Significance: Pioneer activist and feminist psychologist; rejected the feminine mystique; questioned the psychiatric treatment of angry or depressed women and attacked the practice of prescribing tranquilizers to such women; examined how women expected so much of each other that disappointments felt like betrayals, asserting that her "feminist generation ate [their] leaders"
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Beats
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Associations: Hippie counterculture, Joyce Johnson, Susan Griffin Context: Post WWII, 1950s; against the madness of modern life; appeal to alternative life that included rejection of received standards, innovations in style, experimentations in drugs, alternative sexualities, rejection of materialism, explicit portrayals of human condition Significance: Group of writers in 1950s and cultural phenomena they documented and inspired; even though it was definitely dominated by men, select Female Beats broke into the inner circle and enjoyed a bohemian ideal of female independence; Beats pursued spiritual adventures, the heightened moment, intensity for its own sake; men defined nature of freedom, women expected to accept it
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Joyce Johnson
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Associations: Beats, Susan Griffin, Jack Kerouac (Beat pioneer) Context: Beat Generation - post WWII 1950s; against the madness of modern life; appeal to alternative life that included rejection of received standards, innovations in style, experimentations in drugs, alternative sexualities, rejection of materialism, explicit portrayals of human condition Significance: Feminist author and girlfriend of Jack Kerouac; said women were "minor characters" on a stage reserved mainly for men; select Female Beats, like Johnson, enjoyed a bohemian ideal of female independence; helped a few women achieve a certain degree of social and economic independence; Female Beats also gained partial entry into intellectual world previously reserved for men; able to enjoy combination of sexual, intellectual, and economic experiences
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Sex and the Single Girl
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Associations: Book written by Helen Gurley Brown (glamorous editor of Cosmo), mirrored Hefner's "playboy philosophy" Context: Response to the Total Woman ideal who dutifully devoted life to home and hearth; sexual liberation and sexual freedom are becoming more open and widely discussed topics Significance: Advice book that encouraged women to become financially independent and experience sexual relationships before or without marriage; exposed schism within women's movement between those focused more on sexual liberation and those focused more on employment/economic rights; summed up individualistic ethos of consumer and therapeutic feminism; offered an alternative hedonistic lifestyle
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Jane (est. 1969)
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Associations: Officially known as the "Abortion Counseling Service of Women's Liberation", aka "The Service" Context: An effort to address the increasing number of unsafe abortions being performed by untrained persons that often had no medical experience at all; increasing underground network of people skirting the law and providing pregnant women with services Significance: Underground abortion service which operated in Chicago from 1969-1973; founding members of the collective believed that they could provide women with safer and more affordable access to abortions; demonstrated expanding acceptance of sexual liberation
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Women's Strike for Equality (1970)
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Women's Strike for Equality Who or what? August 26, 1970 protest organized by NOW in honor of 50th Anniversary of the 19th Amendment [women's suffrage] Demanded the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment Women around the nation mobilized in protest, myriad of groups NYC = largest protest, mass media attention With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Equal wages for women, ending institutionalized gender discrimination, successful mass demonstration, peaceful protest, pro-choice, reproductive rights In what contexts has it been encountered? 358 anderson, rosen 92-3, 296 What is its significance to this course? Women promoting liberation and empowerment, the "dual themes of the second wave" [Anderson, 358]. shift as the 1970s created an environment where women could raise issues and protest with public support and media coverage, whereas before women were chastised, discredited, overlooked when trying to discuss their status SNCC position paper, female activists in the civil rights movement, etc., who were treated poorly/ received threatening and derogatory comments when discussing gender equality Protest gained media attention and engaged the public in discussion regarding the ERA, which gave Congress added pressure from both newspapers and media outlets, because they too supported the ERA. House of Representatives once more considered the ERA [Anderson,359]
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Equal Rights Amendment (1972)
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Who or what? 27th Amendment to the constitution, brought forth in 1920s, failed, then in 1972 congress passed ERA 84 to 8 Later failed because 35 states ratified when minimum requirement was 38 With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? NOW [National Organization of Women] campaign for ERA included over 250,000 members nationally in over 600 chapters throughout all states, showing extensive grassroots campaign, mobilization for ERA Gov't passed Title IX to ban all forms of discrimination in public universities, showing gov't affecting change because of work of activists In what contexts has it been encountered? P415 Baxandall and Gordon, 404-405 Anderson, 27,39,66,71,82,89, 237, 332-3, 339, rosen 332, etc. What is its significance to this course? Government once again failed to uphold rights of women, act in their favor. Neither republicans nor democrats supported the Amendment enough to ratify it. Similar to the EEOC, because it too represented a façade of the government taking a stand against women's rights. Here, the 1972 passage represented a victory for women but its ultimate failure tells of the inherent gender discrimination within society and governance
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Women's Bureau (est. 1920)
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Who or what? Government agency within the Department of Labor, est 1920 Only organization within the U.S. government which addresses working women in public policy Esther Peterson=President in early sixties under JFK Meant to focus on women's rights in labor and employment, including Working women's welfare, working conditions, opportunity, etc. With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Critical role leading to passage of Equal Pay Act of 1963 Formation of Presidents Commission on Status of women In what contexts has it been encountered? Wiki :/ www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/jofreeman/feminism/suffrage.htm What is its significance to this course? Spent two years lobbying to pass the Equal Pay Act Created a President's Commission on the Status of Women to come up with an alternative solution to the Equal Rights Amendment, which the Bureau and Peterson opposed Represented a government entity that worked on behalf of women, represented them, tried to influence policy to ensure the needs and interests of women are met
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Presidential Report on American Women (1963)
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Who or what? i. 1963 government report providing empirical analysis regarding the status of women in America, looking at socio-economic conditions, opportunities, etc. ii. thorough documentation highlighting different forms of discrimination targeting women b. With what ideas, accomplishments, or events is it associated? i. the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women authorized the report commission established under JFK in 1961 b/c women supported JFK to ensure his election, and commission created in attempts to address the grievances of American women, as well as help repay them for critical role in Nov 1960 -Women's Bureau president Esther Peterson also influenced the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women because wanted to find an alternative solution to ERA ii. female activists against nuclear weapons, success associated with the march for peace, also contributed to JFK's founding of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women c. encountered i. Rosen, 414-415 Bazandall and Gordon [recommended reading] ii. anderson d. Significance i. report findings circulated widely, contributing to the growth of movement, raising awareness regarding issues and obstacles women face ii. allowed women with authoritative documentation with legitimized their struggles related to marginalization and sex discrimination -launching pad for women's liberation iii. led to creation of government offices nationally, where local women participated in activism and growing women's movement iv. organizational structure provided foundation and network for NOW, est 1966 v. stimulated women's commissions in 1967 vi. Same year as EPA, supporting Kennedy Admin's image of taking progressive stance towards gender equality
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Equal Pay Act (1963)
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Who or what? Legislation signed by President Kennedy in June 1963 prohibiting wage discrimination against women solely on the basis of gender With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Women's Bureau influenced it In what contexts has it been encountered? 423 second wave feminism 312 anderson 68,71 rosen What is its significance to this course? Success from combination of grassroots organizations who worked together to raise awareness regarding the issue "helped to publicize a growing sense of gender consciousness" [Rosen, 70-71] like Presidential Report on American Women and The Feminist Mystique Promoted end to discrimination which surpassed equal wages and looked at the broader picture of female discrimination While JFK signed ERA it failed to equalize male and female wages , led to women in the 1970s to shift towards organizing and mobilizing unions, utilizing legislation and political representation to end discrimination Influenced Title VII of 1964 Civil Rights Act under Johnson
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Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) (est. 1964)
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Who or what? Government agency responsible for enforcing gender equality, addressing gender discrimination, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Provides annual reports regarding the status of women Apathetic towards women's issues, failed to work on behalf of women Ex-refused to tackle gender-specific want ads which usually explicitly targeted men for professional positions Women demanded the EEOC uphold Title VII, which they did not Known for making jokes about women, sexism and discrimination within the organization With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Led to the creation of NOW [National Organization for Women] "Equal Employment Opportunity Act--strengthened EEOC, as did the Amendments ti the 1963 Equal Pay Act [Anderson 405] In what contexts has it been encountered? 415 recommended reading, 312,338 anderson, 397 bloom and breines What is its significance to this course? Showed government hypocrisies when the U.S. continued to assert rhetoric of American values of democracy and equality during height of cold war Even though a commission existed, its existence did not translate to change or better positions for women Highlights the extent of sexism within society, and how societally accepted ideals like chauvinism hindered Americans government's inability/unwillingness to make concrete changes fuelled NOW and women's activism because they recognized the government's inability and unwillingness to act on the behalf of women Women's movement revealed rampant gender discrimination, like civil rights movement revealed racial discrimination Can compare to male activists' in SDS, etc., who discriminated against women within their organizations
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Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) (est. 1968)
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Who or what? Organization composed of more conservative female activists Group formed after NOW proclaimed the Bill of Rights for Women in 1968 WEAL lawyers sued 350 universities for sex discrimination in 1971 [Anderson, 361] wanted equal pay and equal opportunity With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Organization associated with moderate/conservative feminism, NOW equal employment and education opportunities In what contexts has it been encountered? Anderson 361, 312 What is its significance to this course? Trying to achieve concrete change through institutionalized means like legislation, trying to achieve justice through judicial branch Similar to NAACP, other groups who utilize already established structural mechanisms to achieve their goals of equality Indicative of activists' success and momentum to the movement, as the mobilization against discrimination and sexism created the necessary foundations in order to later achieve reproductive rights in 1973 roe v wade, etc
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NOW Task Force on Sexuality and Lesbianism (est. 1973)
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Who or what? NOW established the Task Force on Sexuality and Lesbianism in 1973, after adopting lesbian rights two years prior. Formed with the goal of curbing discrimination based on sexual orientation With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? NOW, lesbianism, discrimination based on sexual orientation In what contexts has it been encountered? http://www.now.org/issues/lgbi/timeline.html What is its significance to this course? Shows NOW as all-encompassing to women's issues, catering to the diverse needs of women, more exclusive Highlights trend throughout second wave of feminism, as NOW allocated specific group to tackle one concrete issue rather than using an overarching approach like those of the previous decade Provides further support for lesbians, broadens their base and support group Establishing a Task Force to address the grievances associated with sexual discrimination allowed a more open environment for lesbians, as sexual orientation becomes explicitly discussed within civil and human rights framework. sign of greater acceptable, integration, and lessened discrimination towards the gay community, as in the fifties and early sixties lesbianism remained controversial to large portions of society
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Valerie Solanas
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Who or what? Wrote the 'SCUM Manifesto' [SCUM= Society for Cutting Up Men] Blamed men for the evils of the world, argued their "collective annihilation" [85 Rosen] Shot Andy Warhol, Ti-Grace Atkinson went to her trial With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Separatism, Ti-Grace Atkinson In what contexts has it been encountered? 85 rosen What is its significance to this course? Some younger feminists supported Solanas and thought her actions positive, while others thought she needed help NOW didn't want to be associated with her, and backlash occurred when president came to her trial Ti-Grace Atkinson [NOW President] went to her trial, and some now members didn't appreciate that, b/c didn't want outsiders to identify NOW with Valerie Sonalas' views targeting men for perils and annihilation
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Ti-Grace Atkinson
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Who or what? President of NYC NOW, but after Valerie Solanas's trial, she left now and formed her own organization, The Feminists, because she was disillusioned by NOW's elitist mentality felt women shouldn't marry or have sex with men Without sex, women could "enjoy the platonic love of 'sisterhood' and channel all their passion into the movement." [Anderson, 151.] Radical feminist who called for a social and economic revolution as necessary steps towards achieving women's equality and liberation With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Radical feminism Abstaining from sex Similar to older feminists like Betty Freidan who felt like obsession with sex and sexual revolution were not among the most critical aspects of gender discrimination and inequality, wanted to focus more on employment and poverty In what contexts has it been encountered? Anderson 341, rosen 151-2 What is its significance to this course? Shows diversity within the movement, as some called for sexual liberation while others called for abstinence Power and influence of radical feminism Small percent of feminists but highly influential because their radical views continued to generate discussion within feminism
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National Women's Political Caucus (est. 1971)
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Who or what? grassroots organization founded by prominent feminists, organizers, congresswomen, etc with the goals of increasing women's participation in public and private life, political participation Trained women to be delegates to represent women's interests organize to pass the ERA With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Main concerns: Reproductive freedom, affordable childcare, passing ERA and gov't funded child centers In what contexts has it been encountered? 89 Rosen, http://www.nwpc.org/history, wiki What is its significance to this course? Women taking proactive steps to engage in politics and ensure their needs and interests were represented Effort on national policy level to create change that affects women nationally, similar to the Women's Bureau [?]
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Title IX [of the Education Amendments of 1972]
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Title IX [of the Education Amendments of 1972] Who or what? 1972 Amendment which called equal education opportunity for men and women, including higher education and athletics With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? NOW, WEAL organized national campaign to promote Title IX In what contexts has it been encountered? http://www.now.org/history/timeline.html What is its significance to this course? Provides official grounds to end discrimination in education, which opened up far greater opportunities for women, since they now had equal access to higher education, athletics Provides further legislative means to establish foundation for gender equality, shows gaining momentum within the women's movement, building off of earlier successes like the 1963 EPA to end discrimination in workplace
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Roe v. Wade(1973)
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Who or what? 1973 supreme court case which legalized abortion [with limitations regarding the development of the child, cant abort after certain period] decision came out jan 22 1973 14th Amendment protects women's privacy Makes a separation between the government and civilian sexual activity, gov't not in civilians' bedrooms, infringes upon a woman's rights for the government to intervene on such decisions With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? NOW, Jane, Women's Reproductive rights In what contexts has it been encountered? 89,91,158-9, 331 What is its significance to this course? Major feat for women, gave them right to choose whether or not to bear children, vital to women's rights because women gained control of their bodies Successful protesting/organizing/campaigning to achieve women's reproductive rights, which remained a major concern because women previously endured "back alley abortions" which remained dangerous and fatal to some Sign of female empowerment, because women now had both birth control and abortion, giving them control of their reproductive rights and the choice to decide if and when said woman is ready to bear children. controversy around the decision led to grassroots organizations against abortion, and later legislation like Hyde Amendment and Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, which work to undermine Roe v. Wade
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Equal Credit Opportunity Act (ECOA) (1974)
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Who or what? Act passed by congress which allowed women to obtain credit Unlawful for creditors to discriminate based on sex, race, marital status, etc With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? National Women's Political Caucus and associated organizations pressured Congress to pass the ECOA in 1974 In what contexts has it been encountered? 90 Rosen, http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/womens_movement.aspx#3 What is its significance to this course? More economic power for women, more opportunity for women to control and manage their own finances Economic independence
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Women's Educational Equity Act (WEEA) (1974)
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Who or what? Federal program designed to promote gender equity in education Enacted to support Title IX and ensure that women received equal education opportunities Arlene Horowitz, author of WEEA, original member of National Women's Political Caucus, first came up with idea of WEEA after experiencing discrimination in the workforce With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Title IX National Women's Political Caucus, Arlene Horowitz In what contexts has it been encountered? The National Council for Research on Women, wiki What is its significance to this course? Power of women using previously established legislation to ensure their needs were met By utilizing Title IX and the organizations/networks already in place, Horowitz and the NWPC, etc., raised awareness about the Act and lobbied for it to occur Comparable to other movements who use legislation and existing system in order to meet their demands for change towards equality Ex of NAACP
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Phyllis Schlafly
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Phyllis Schlafly Who or what? Led "Stop-ERA" campaign organized the Eagle Forum to counter women's liberation movement With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Anti-feminist backlash, against the Equal Rights Amendment In what contexts has it been encountered? 416 What is its significance to this course? "growing and tightly organized anti-feminist backlash, which was able to weird power disproportionate to its public support" Larger struggle common to grassroots organizations and oppressed groups, as structural factors of society, e.g. discriminative legislation and widely accepted/practiced socio/political/economic exclusion which organizers must overcome Similar to early civil rights activism with NAACP tackling separate but equal, etc Who or what? Political campaign trying to dissuade voters and politicians from supporting the Equal Rights Amendment Led by Phyllis Schlafly Funded by conservative groups and corporations With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Successfully preventing the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment In what contexts has it been encountered? 416 bazandall and gordon 91,293,332 rosen What is its significance to this course? Reflective of the larger backlash against feminism/threats to conservative traditional society conservative corporate fortunes who control media and other business and spread their opposition views, gained religious fundamentalists' support, etc Similar to roe v wade and the anti-abortion right to life activists who opposed Roe v Wade 425
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SNCC Position Paper (Women in the Movement) (1964)
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Who or what? African American women within SNCC wrote a paper which highlighted that although they were surrounded by activists and within groups promoting ideals and values of equal treatment and opportunity, gender discrimination and sexism proved rampant The male organizers continue to dominate within movements, organizing, taking leadership positions, acting as face for movements, etc. while simultaneously micromanaging to ensure women remained confined to traditionally accepted gender roles Typist, secretarial positions, cook, cleaner, assistant, and [very rarely] non-threatening leadership positions With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Minority women within civil rights organizations In what contexts has it been encountered? 38-39 bloom and breines What is its significance to this course? Significant because it highlights a gender hierarchy within society, as even progressive groups who openly support civil and individual rights including equality, remain so chauvinistic Minority women also engaging in feminism, shows diversity amongst different groups of women, more inclusive as it transcends the educated middle/upper class suburban Anglo wife. Highlights a shift, as women began to finally raise issues directly related to gender discrimination during this period [1964] While feminists had been active in previous decades, the first half of the sixties marked a time when women were circulating ideas and engaging in discussion regarding their own identities, the role of women, the relationship between women and men, women and society, etc., addressing fundamental values like 1963 Presidential Report on American Women Consciousness raising Like Women's Political Council in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, as their role in organizing and maintaining the boycott proved both critical but overlooked, as women fail to receive credibility or acknowledgement of their work and effort.
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Voice of the Women's Liberation Movement(est. 1968)
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Who or what? First national women's liberation newsletter, edited by Jo Freeman Allowed more communication within the movement With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Women Strike for Peace Protest Similar to Laura X's SPASZM In what contexts has it been encountered? 201 Rosen, http://www.jofreeman.com/feminism/liberationmov.htm What is its significance to this course? The women's movement at the time consisted of thousands of small chapters throughout the country and newsletters represent a critical way for the groups to mobilize and communicate with one another on given issues The ability to communicate strengthened the movement because it continued to circulate ideas and critical issues, helped national protests and movements manifest
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Laura X
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Who or what? aka Laura Murra, longtime activist from Berkeley, published SPASZM newsletter that highlighted women's liberation groups nationally [132 Rosen] Kept all documentation, essentially created an archive of documentation from the movement to form 'The Berkeley Women's Herstory Library' Founder of the National Clearinghouse on Marital Rape 1979 Wanted to identify marital rape as a sex crime Addressed women's concerns with date rape, concern transcended past marital rape Also felt sexual revolution didn't improve women's lives or status With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Marital rape as sexual crime, Berkeley Women's library In what contexts has it been encountered? Rosen 132-3, 150, 183-4, 198, 206, 223 What is its significance to this course? Her collection of material and the newsletter SPASZM provided feminists with networking tools and information on the different facets of the movement Mass circulation and national coverage reinforced the growth of feminism, and provided support to other groups because they had a concrete understanding that feminists were collectively struggling towards the same goals Primary sources for historians, later generations to learn from movement Marital rape as sex crime reframed the issue of rape between married couples, questioned the role of wives and asserted their autonomy and rights regarding sex remained applicable even with their husbands Allowed people to look at rape-marital, date rape, etc as women's concerns transcended past marital rape
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Freedom Trash Can
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Freedom Trash Can Who or what? During the Miss America protest [Sept 7 1968] women were calling other women to bring "women garbage" like bras, makeup, fake eyelashes, stereotypical women's items, to ceremoniously burn on the Atlantic City Boardwalk Rejecting items that correlate with women's oppression, hence the term freedom as women threw away conceptions Protesting Ms. America and the image that it conveys, seen as oppressive to women, limits and confines women to these stereotypes With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? New York Radical Women, Ms. America Pageant Protest In what contexts has it been encountered? 482-4 bloom and breines What is its significance to this course? Entire protest and symbolic bra burning generated a lot of media attention, as the event was so publicized. The Freedom Trash Can was conveyed as radical, but successfully integrated women's liberation into the most cherished beauty pageant in the nation similar to the anti-war protesters who burned their draft cards
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New York Radical Women (est. 1967)
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Who or what? Radical younger feminist organization from the new left, lasted 1967-1969 Group disbanded and some members formed other organizations like WITCH, Redstockings Famous for Ms. America Protest 1968 "Women's Liberation" banner inside the Ms. America protest Freedom trash can Anti-pornography Pornography=harmful to women, inherently abusive, contributes to the objectification and degradation of women physically, psychologically, and economically [for actresses] with what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Ms. America protest, radical feminism, WITCH In what contexts has it been encountered? 132, 201 rosen What is its significance to this course? Rise of radical feminism both in media and in organizations, as New York Radical Women eventually broke into different groups with more specific ideologies and values within women's liberation Stance on pornography developed and was adopted by other feminists as well to later form other anti-pornography organizations and efforts
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"Redstockings Manifesto" (1969)
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The Redstockings were an important radical feminist organisation based in New York, they issued a manifesto in 1969.In the manifesto they identify the agents of women's oppression as men, they see racism, capitalism and imperalism as simply other forms of male supremacy. In the manifesto they argue that since all men receive economic, sexual and psychological benefits from male supremacy, all men have oppressed women. They identified with all women, they wanted to unite all women and allow women to realise they represent an oppressed class in society. As an organisation they wanted to develop a female class consciousness. They believed that as male supremacy was ingrained in academic thought they could not rely on any analysis of their situation that did not emanate from real women's experience. To create this analysis and to raise a female class consciousness the Redstockings held consciousness raising sessions (see next key term).The Redstockings also wanted internal democracy within their organisation. The Redstockings manifesto shows the different factions of the women's movement, the Redstockings for example are much more radical as an organisation than NOW (National Organisation for Women). NOW was much more of a conservative organisation that deliberately tried not to alienate the mainstream of American society by not engaging in any forms of "Man-hating". The Redstockings also differed from a lot of the mainstream women's liberation organisations by attempting to represent and understand the experience of all women including poor and coloured women, NOW as an organisation can be criticised for mainly focusing on improving the lives of white middle-class women. The Redstockings Manifesto clearly represents the disillusionment many women who had participated in the New Left ect. were feeling towards these social movements. The Redstockings commitment to a democratic organisation where every members voice is heard can be seen as an attack on organisations such as SD's that were being denounced at this time for being hierarchical and male dominated.
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consciousness raising
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The Redstockings saw that their chief task was to develop female class consciousness through sharing experiences and publicly exposing the sexist foundations of institutions.They felt that women had to honest with themselves and each other and share their experiences before a program of liberation could be created. Consciousness raising was considered one of the most important methods of changing the way in which people saw the world enabling them to perceive and define situations in social and political terms. The Redstockings set up consciousness raising sessions in which women were gathered together and directed their talk towards a particular question or issue. Each of the women were given a chance to speak. They felt consciousness raising was a way to develop a political analysis based on real experiences they could trust. They were sceptical of the theories and ideologies that already existed to help analyse their situation as they saw the world throughout history as being dominated and dictated by men. Through these consciousness raising session The Redstockings also hoped to help women learn from other women and to cross boundaries of economics, class and race. Through these consciousness raising sessions women realised they were not alone and their experiences were remarkably similar. By sharing their grievances women were able to see that what was happening to them was happening to other women and it was something that needed to be changed- the personal became political.Although these consciousness-raising sessions were organised by the Redstockings, texts also had a consciousness raising affect on women. Through reading books such as Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique women began to realise the grievances they felt were not crazy but legitimate, and felt by others.
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Robin Morgan
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A well known feminist author and editor of the extremely influential anthology Sisterhood is Powerful. She wrote a scathing and furious essay in 1970 called "Goodbye to all that" which exposed the sexism of the white male dominated New Left. She rejects and says goodbye to the New Left which she argues allocates all the power to men at the top and forces women to do all the work at the bottom. She says goodbye to the idea that women and colored people will gain freedom automatically after the socialist revolution. She says goodbye to the counterfeit Left and the libertine counterculture which elevated freedom over equality and intensified sexual exploitation. She argues that the sexual revolution arrived on male terms. Morgan's scathing critique is symbolic of what a lot of women were experiencing at this time with organisations such as SD's or in their experience working with organisations such as SNCC during freedom summer. Despite thinking they were working alongside their "brothers" in these movements women came to realise their voices were not being listened to, they were being relegated to the worst jobs such as taking minutes at meetings and often were being sexually exploited by their "brothers". Like Morgan many women decided to leave these movements and organisations that they found deeply sexist and join the women's liberation movement. Failure of the New Left to be inclusive helped to give rise to the women's movement.
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"Girls Say Yes to Men Who Say No"
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This was a slogan used by the anti-war movement to persuade men to resist the draft. An example of the way women were sexually exploited by these movements. They felt they were not taken seriously as activists by their "brothers" in the movement and were merely seen as sexual objects. Women in these movements started to question how far the sexual revolution had really liberated them. Young women started to ask why men had to offer their bodies as a reward to other men who resisted the draft? This slogan and the criticism it raised shows the kinds of questions young women started to ask, they started to see the sexual revolution as something that had mainly benefitted men at the expense of women.
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"The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm" (1968)
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In 1968 Anne Koedt wrote "The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm" a widely read essay which became an instant feminist classic.Koedt denounced Freud's idea of a vaginal orgasm and condemned doctors who freely dispensed a psychiatric diagnosis of frigidity to women who only had "clitioral"orgasms. The myth of the vaginal orgasm Koedt wrote "was a conspiracy by which men controlled women's highly passionate sexuality". She argues that as the clitoris was the key to female orgasmic stimulation- women could replace men with masturbation, other women, and sex toys. Koedt's essay had a powerful effect on women who were able to realise they were not "frigid" or "immature" for not reaching orgasm through vaginal penetration. This information also opened up huge opportunities for women to find sexual fulfillment independent of men. However for many older women who often were part of the more conservative or mainstream factions of the women's movement these debates about orgasms and shaving ect seemed frivolous. Instead of re-evaluating gender roles these older women were more concerned with reaching economic and educational equality with men, whereas younger or more radical women were more concerned with re-evaluating gender roles all together.
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Shulamith Firestone
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Shulamith Firestone was a feminist writer and activist in 1968 she wrote "Women's rap about sex" which appeared in Notes from the First Year a journal written and distributed by the group New York Radical Women. Her essay revealed some of the disappointment that remained hidden behind satisfied smiles. Firestone talked about faking orgasms and the lack of sexual fulfillment she was experiencing, many other women in the movement also began to admit to other women that they too had faked orgasms. Empowered women to be more open about their sex lives rather than remain dissatisfied. In 1970 Firestone also wrote The Dialectics of Sex, a dense theoretical work that tried to explain why sex, not class, lay at the root of all oppression. Firestone argued for the freeing of women from the tyranny of their biology by any means available. In short if babies could be conceived in test tubes and nurtured outside the female body - women would be freed from the tyranny of their biological fate. Firestone's controversial work and the polarising response it received show the divisions within the women's movement. Some women thought that Firestone had found the solution, while others were outraged at the way her work belittled the experience of being pregnant,giving birth and being a mother. Her work was also criticized for depicting men as the normative human being and women's bodies as cursed- rather than asking society to respect women as bearers of children.
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Kate Millett
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In 1970 Kate Millet wrote Sexual Politics that dissected books such as D.H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's lover, Henry Miller's Sexus and William Burroughs' Naked Lunch. Millet showed that although women had supported the movement to stop this literature from being censored, these books portrayed women being sadistically abused by men. Her book jump-started the field of feminist literary criticism. Millet quickly became a celebrity but when she came out as a bisexual the media tried to discredit her literary criticism by calling her a "man-hating dyke." This coverage is indicative of much of the media reportage on the women's movement which often tried to de-legitimise women's concerns. For example media coverage of the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City in 1968 - focused predominantly on the idea of bra-burning something that didn't even happen at the event due to fire-regulations. Millets criticism forced women to examine the misogyny in so much of their everyday lives- which contrasted with the sexual emancipation women were supposed to have experienced during the Sexual Revolution.
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Erica Jong
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Offered a complicated portrayl of the problematic relationship between sex and independence for women in her best selling 1972 novel "Fear of Flying". Jong understood that sexual emacipation did not necessarily confer on women any independence. The novel is about a woman called Isobel who dreams- and fantasises about a "zipless f***" a passionate sexual interaction without commitment. But when she embarks on a sexual affair she realises she can't handle a "zipless f***" really she wants a man to "complete her". This book resonated with women in the 1970's who were trying to navigate the experience of having been sexually liberated but still struggling to shake off feelings about sex being connected to romantic love and relationships that was instilled in them through the fifties. Shows that although some women embraced their new found sexual liberation, others struggled to feel they had truly been emancipated.
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The Hite Report
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The Hite Report of 1976 was the first survey of American Women's Sexual Experience since Kinsey's studies in the 1950's. Ten years after women's liberationists exposed the ubiquity of the "faked orgasm' Shere Hite's survey of 3,000 women revealed that 95 percent of them claimed to always reach orgasm through masturbation, while only 30 percent claimed to do so exclusively through intercourse. The report added evidence to women's argument that they were not being satisfied by only vaginal penetrative sex. Women in this time started exploring other options and experimenting with their sexuality independent of men- highly empowering.
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Roe V. Wade 1973
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The Supreme Court decision legalised abortion on the grounds of privacy. The decision said "We recognise the right of the individual, married or single, to be free from unwanted governmental intrusion into matters so fundamentally affecting a person as the right of a woman to decide whether or not to terminate her pregnancy" The controversial decision struck down state laws that prohibited abortion and permitted a woman and her doctor to make all decisions about reproduction during the first six months of pregnancy. The decision was hugely influential for the women's movement, something that NOW had been lobbying for since its inception. Ended a long and dark history of women having to seek dangerous back alley abortions. However as soon as abortion became legal anti-abortion groups began a movement to repeal the law. In 1977 anti-abortion groups successfully lobbied Congress into passing the Hyde Amendment which prevented the government from funding abortions. This meant that abortions became available only to those who could finance them themselves.
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"lavender menace"
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Lavender menace was the term used by Betty Friedan the president of NOW and author of The Feminine Mystique in 1969 and again in 1970 to characterise lesbians in the women's movement. Betty Friedan worried that lesbians in the movement would provide enemies with the ammunition to dismiss the women's movement as a bunch of man-hating dykes.Many lesbians who had been key organisers left the organisation because of her comments. Shows how the early mainstream feminist movement was very exclusive did not incorporate the experiences of coloured women or lesbians.In 1973 NOW created a task force on sexuality and lesbianism that passed a resolution that defined sexuality and lesbianism as a civil rights issue.The resolution declared that the organisation should actively introduce and support civil rights legislation to end discrimination based on sexual orientation. After Betty Friedan's comments many lesbian women left NOW to form much more radical women's liberationist groups.
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Radicalesbians
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In New York city a group of women who called themselves radicalesbians started recasting lesbianism as a political choice in 1970. These lesbian feminists described themselves as the "new vanguard" of the women's movement and denounced sleeping with men as "reactionary" political behaviour. Only with women they insisted could feminists integrate their emotional, political, and sexual lives. Only with women could feminists discover emotional freedom and sexual satisfaction. At the second congress to unite women in 1970 Radicalesbians wearing t-shirts that read "lavender menace" grabbed an open microphone to promote the politics of lesbianism and passed out copies of an essay called "Woman-identified Woman". These women who found themselves alienated from both the Gay Liberation Front and NOW, decided to set up their own feminist groups that were often far more progressive than the mainstream. Because of these women's open and confident attitude many women decided to experiment more freely with their sexualities. However by setting themselves up as the Vanguard of the women's movement these radical lesbians often fermented a straight/lesbian rift that caused fragmentation in many women's organisations.
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Rita Mae Brown
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Was an upfront lesbian who was part of the Radicalesbians movement. At The Second Congress to Unite women in 1970 she and other lesbians grabbed the open microphone to promote the politics of lesbiansim, wearing lavender t-shirts saying "lavender menace". In some ways however these Radicalesbians caused fragmentation in the movement by making it seem as though to really be at the vanguard of the movement you had to be lesbian.The essay they passed out at the Congress framed lesbianism as a radical political choice for women who refused to except the oppression laid on her by society- rather than a sexual preference.Some lesbians feared straight women's disapproval and many straight women feared lesbians condemnation. In such an atmosphere fear turned to self-righteousness and by 1972 a "gay-straight" split affected nearly every women's liberation group.
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Off Our Backs(est. 1970)
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A national women's liberation newspaper that published the writings of lesbian separatist groups. Many lesbian women felt they had to split from heterosexual feminists in order to create an all women's space completely free from male patriarchy. Small groups of lesbian feminists began to found separatist communes. The Furies a Washington DC group became one of the most influential lesbian separatist groups and became famous for their writings published in Off Our Backs. The paper was originally a centrist womens liberation newspaper but it came more to be defined as a radical lesbian fringe paper, journalist Marilyn Webb was sure that the reason for this political change was due to FBI infiltration, something that caused further rifts and anxieties in the women's liberation movement.
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Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972
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A. Who or what is the entity named? 1972 bill that strengthened the enforcement powers of the Equal Opportunity Employment Commission amended the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to include public employees gives the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) authority to sue in federal courts when it finds reasonable cause to believe that there has been employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The Act prohibits employment discrimination in its programs on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, and marital or familial status. B. With what ideas, accomplishments, or events is it associated? Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 1963 Equal Pay Act the 2nd Wave NOW C. In what context(s) has it been encountered? page 405 of Anderson the great amount of success of the Women's Movement in the early 1970s in provoking political and legal changes to prevent gender discrimination D. What is its significance to this course? an example of the use of the political and legal system by the Women's Movement to further their cause solidified the idea that the 1970s were the decade of women's liberation; change came relatively quick for women than for racial minorities because they had more leverage with those in power - white men
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sameness/difference debate
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A. Who or what is the entity named? forms of feminist theory that shaped the goals sought by different members of the 2nd Wave of the Women's Movement on the side of sameness, emphasizing the similarities between the sexes, are feminists who thought that women should be treated just like men. the equal talents of men and women should be recognized and be permitted the same opportunities as men; eventually ability should take precedence over gender on the other side of the debate, stressing the differences between the sexes, were feminists who pointed to the male bias of social institutions and to the difficulty a woman had in being both a mother and a professional argued for differential treatment because women had the unique experience of having the demands of home life and the workplace encouraged sex-based legislation that would create a more level playing field by offering women additional rights and privileges B. With what ideas, accomplishments, or events is it associated? the Equal Rights Amendment Title IX of the Higher Education Act - prohibited gender discrimination in public universities 1963 Equal Pay Act C. In what context(s) has it been encountered? in the 1970s, as women began to attempt to consolidate around a single set of goals in the Women's Movement, this debate continually arose about what women's liberation meant D. What is its significance to this course? an example of the difficulty of forming a movement on behalf of such a large group - there was a great deal of conflict and disagreement within the Women's Movement about which direction to take while this debate, which continued throughout the Movement, led to internal conflict in the Movement, it also led to its broad success - it was able to please advocates of the sameness theory with things like the Equal Pay Act while it also pleased difference theorists with its push for improvements in welfare policy and child care this debate shaped the actions that the Movement took; internal divisions can actually foster a more comprehensive movement that speaks to and meets the needs of a larger population of the target group
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"Port Huron Statement" (1962)
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Associations: Drafted by Tom Hayden, SDS, Al Haber, the New Left, SNCC Context: Students witnessed racism in the south; discontent with distance between what the nation supposedly represented and the realities on the ground (poverty, racism, absence of truly participatory democracy); response to and rejection of immediate past, especially McCarthy era; beginning of the student movement and the creation of SDS; SDS targets men, upper/middle class white people, relatively affluent, educated, come from comfortable homes Significance: Democratically created manifesto of the American student activist movement "SDS" that looks at organization and its constituency, identifies authors and value; challenged racial bigotry, atomic power, the fear of change; declared war on cold war culture. Radical in proposing a new ideology, the New Left, and split from the old left; example of traditional American reform document that called for true democracy; first commentary from a new generation of white students; shaped SDS and the larger student movement
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Tom Hayden
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Associations: SDS, Port Huron Statement, SNCC Context: Freedom Rider, in SNCC in Mississippi, witnessed racism in the south; discontent with distance between what the nation supposedly represented and the realities on the ground (poverty, racism, absence of truly participatory democracy); response to and rejection of immediate past, especially McCarthy era; beginning of the student movement and the creation of SDS Significance: Best embodied by quote from SDS member - "Tom Hayden changed America... He was father to the largest mass protests in American history"; key influential leader throughout the entirety of the student movement
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Clark Kerr
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Associations: FSM, Mario Savio, multi-versity, Context: National student movement is real; Berkeley FSM, part of administrative decision to ban tables that advertise "off-campus issues" (e.g. Civil Rights); students are extremely upset and protest after catalyst event, arrest of Jack Weinberg Significance: UC President during a flourishing period in UC Berkeley history, more importantly during the FSM; made decisions that provided the catalyst for FSM (suspended 8 students and arrest of Jack Weinberg); against communism and promoted police force against students; the administration "brought on the crisis, handled it poorly, and lost to the students"
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in loco parentis
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Associations: FSM, student movement, Michigan State Context: Larger population of college-aged student body is "of age", 18; student rights movement; parents are of very different generation than youth Significance: "in place of parents" - refers to legal responsibility of a person or org to take care on some of the functions and responsibilities of a parent; legally, it meant that unlike regular citizens, students could be tried by civil and university authorities; parents expected university to act in their stead; another type of restriction (coupled with on free speech) meant to control the intellectually stimulated youth of the era that precipitated the FSM
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Young Americans for Freedom (YAF) (est. 1960)
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Associations: Conservative and libertarian student organization opposed to liberal student organizations; NSA, Barry Goldwater, FSM, McCarthyism Context: During the Berkeley FSM, defended the university's actions and opposed the FSM Significance: Exposes that there was activism on both sides of the political spectrum, not in just the left side like is commonly remembered and romanticized
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Committee for Student Rights (CSR)(est. 1965)
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Associations: Michigan teach-in, antiwar movement, student movement, in loco parentis Context: Cold War culture over for many white students, Berkeley protests had inspired national student action by demonstrating the power students had Significance: Antiwar student group formed at Michigan State to confront administration concerning in loco parentis regulations that eventually resulted in liberalizing many old regulations; demonstrates power of student organization to affect university policy, and that students were concerned about their own rights as students
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Students for Liberal Action (SLA)(est. 1962)
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Associations: Student movement, in loco parentis Context: Duke recently admitted first black graduate students in 1961 (undergrads in 1962), students were concerned about academic freedom, racial integration, and treatment of nonacademic black employees Significance: Pro-Civil Rights group at Duke that also opposed parietal laws and other infringements on students' rights; importantly demonstrates power of students to not only claim their own rights but also play a part in the effort of gaining rights for others, namely university employees
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University of Michigan teach-in (1965)
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Associations: Antiwar movement, Vietnam War, President LBJ, Selma March, SDS Context: Antiwar movement, response to the Vietnam War; employed civil rights concepts of sit-ins and freedom schools; days after Selma March Significance: Demonstrated how different movements learn from and incorporate other movements' strategies and tactics; experience that changed participants' lives - actually educational; gave impetus to other teach-ins around the country
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"Letter to the New Left" (1960)
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Associations: SDS, the "New Left", C. Wright Mills Context: Beginning of the student movement and the "New Left"; shift away from the "old left" and towards a younger intellectual population who valued the counter-culture and emphasized an international perspective on the movement Significance: Popularized the term the "New Left", profound impact upon them; Mills argued for a new leftist ideology, moving away from the traditional ("Old Left") focus on labor issues towards structural and systemic issues; also claimed that the new agent of revolutionary change were young intellectuals around the world
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Jerry Rubin
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Radical counterculture activist from UC Berkeley. Organized Vietnam Day Committee and was one of the first anti-war protesters later founded Yippies with Abbie Hoffman and others One of the Chicago 8 who were arrested for "inciting a riot" at the 1968 Democratic convention Associations: anti-war, anti-segregation, anti-establishment Significance: high-profile activist, major organizer
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Fifth Avenue Peace Parade (1966)
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March/protest down 5th ave. to the UN plaza in New York. Organized by Norma Becker who was an active member of the CRM and had taught in Freedom Schools during Freedom Summer. 20,000 participated, 300 gathered for a "speak-out" at armed forces center in Manhattan where David Miller burned his draft card in front of TV crews. He was imprisoned. context: The anti-war movement Significance: crossover of CRM, anti-war movement and women organizing. The individual movements were becoming "The Movement"
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National Coordinating Committee to End the War in Vietnam (NCC) (est. 1965)
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Organized in Washington - formed by activists from almost 40 different organizations 1000 people held a vigil outside of the White House on the 20th anniversary of the Hiroshima Nagasaki bombings Protesters (including people like Bob Moses) clashed with police, over 300 arrested Context: Growing anti-war sentiment, significance: different organizations working together, mobilizing
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Vietnam Day Committee (VDC) (est. 1965)
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Radical committee formed in Berkeley by Jerry Rubin to protest/try to stop the Vietnam War Used provocative tactics (eg tried to stop troop trains running through Berkeley), Rubin stated "we were f**king obnoxious", alienated liberals, appalled the public In 1965 it organized a teach-in at UC Berkeley with thousands of students VDC left campus on a "peace invasion" of Oakland army base but were stopped by police and had to turn back. The following day they attempted the march again but were beaten by Hell's Angels Context = student movement, anti-war, counterculture Significance = it highlights the growing agency of students as the political movers and shakers of history, rising opposition to war, illustrates tension between radicals and liberals (two thirds of US supported the war at first, anti-war protesters were a resented minority)
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International Days of Protest (1965 & 1966)
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National protest organized by VDC in October 15-16. 100,000 activists participated in 80 cities across USA. Colleges participated (Berkeley, Iowa State, Yale). VDC (located in Berkeley) coordinated with campuses nationwide and some international student organizations (in Mexico and Japan) Participants included Allen Ginsberg, Ken Kesey Associations: student activism, Jerry Rubin, anti-war Context: beginnings of the anti-war movement significance: Student power, organizing and coordinating a social movement
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Berkeley Barb (est. 1965)
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Underground radical countercultural newspaper Published a range of articles from civil rights to anti-war. Gave the side of the story that "the establishment" wouldn't. Eg- the Oakland Tribune reported that anti-war activists jeered soldiers going off to war. The Barb reported that the soldiers held up signs in support of the movement Context = growing anti-war sentiment significance = importance of the media in building and sustaining a social movement base. It published times/dates of events. ALSO - partially funded itself by printing pornographic advertisements and had it's headquarters attacked by radical feminists. Shows sexism of counterculture.
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Allen Ginsberg
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A massively famous Beat, poet, gay, counterculture figure. Probably his most famous poem is Howl Highly experimental (drugs, sex etc), Ginsberg was vehemently anti war, anti militarism, anti colonialism, anti sexual repression (outspoken supporter or gay rights). Interested in Eastern religions, buddhism, Involved with SO MUCH STUFF, but for the purposes of our class = notably gay rights, FSM, the Human Be-in, Summer or Love and the anti-war movement He was not only a major activist working against the "establishment", but his poetry offer an historical primary source snapshot into 50s and 60s US culture
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Merry Pranksters
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Haight Ashbury counterculture group that formed around author Ken Kesey in 1964. Used lots of drugs and went on road trips (their story is detailed in the Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test) The group predated the yippies and hippies and Merry Pranksters irritated many activists who (at this point) just wanted to organize, demonstrate, and try to change America (idealism vs the disillusionment of Merry Pranksters) Later in 1966-1967 Pranksters were joined by growing hippie movement who decided to "drop out" of American society, so to speak (reject the war, racism, conformity, drop acid)
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National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam ("the Mobe")(est. 1967)
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Organized by a coalition of anti-war groups (VDC and others) to protest the war in Vietnam, announced Stop the Draft Week would begin in October Coordinated loads of marches and demonstrations in NY,SFO, but most notably demonstrated at the 1968 NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC CONVENTION in Chicago where President Johnson was going to be elected for a second term Their protest was met by police violence and repression Significance = Anderson argues that the 1968 convention violence was one of the factors that ushered in the 2nd wave of the counterculture. It contributed to the growing sense of disillusionment with American system
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Stop the Draft Week (1967)
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Organized by the Mobe to be a week of anti-war protests in October 1967 High point was the March on the Pentagon where protesters included middle class liberals, student radicals, hippies, CRM activists, black power people, Vietnam veterans. Everybody sat down on the front lawn of the pentagon, sang songs, smoked dope, etc Diggers arrived with free food Although protesters were largely non-violent, it was met with police brutality from 82nd division who beat them, clubbed, kicked them significance = protests considered to have been a success. some 1400 people handed back their draft cards. Motivated anti war protesters to continue the fight (aided protests at Democratic NAtional Convention in 1968). Stop the Draft Week also had an effect on the administration. CIA began Operation Chaos
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Operation CHAOS (est. 1967)
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Illegal CIA operation that infiltrated movement groups (CORE, SANE, Women Strike for Peace etc) to try to find evidence that they were being run by foreign communist cells Operation Chaos worked in conjunction with FBI to investigate tax records, personal backgrounds of protesters/activists context = anti war significance = the illegal CIA campaign confirmed the legitimacy of "The Movement" to question the establishment and fight for the right to participatory democracy. It showed that lengths to which the government would go to restore order. The belief that these groups were communist also showed the administration's paranoia and its inability to grasp the concepts of the counterculture
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WHAM! (Winning Hearts and Minds)
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The term "winning hearts and minds" refers to a campaign run by the U.S military intended to win popular support of the vietnamese people. It was used in response to worldwide criticism that the U.S could never win a war without the support of the population they claimed to be fighting for. The idea is associated with President Lyndon B. Johnson, who used the phase repeatedly, from 1964-1968, in his attempt to convince the american people (and the rest of the "free" world, that his efforts in Vietnam were working and overall worth it. The concept has been encountered in the context of the vietnam war and the associated anti war movement. In particular, it is connected to and associated with the Johnson administration and its struggle to convince the country that the war was worth fighting. Its significance to the course lies in its close association with the antiwar movement. "Winning hearts and minds" was in many ways coined as a response to growing feelings that the current strategy in vietnam was not working (which was the result of the antiwar movement.)
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Eugene McCarthy
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AMerican politician, U.S representative from minnesota throughout the 50's, senator through the 60's. Ran for president a number of times, most notably in 1968, where he ran as an anti-war candidate and challenged incumbent LBJ. (NOTE: DO NOT CONFUSE WITH JOE McCARTHY) Associated with the democratic party, liberalism, new left. Opposed Joe McCarthy's anti-communist crusade in the 50's. Opposed the vietnam war in the 60's. Been encountered within the context of the anti-war movement and the 1968 presidential elections. Its important to note that Eugene McCarthy significance to the course is not that he was a member of the new left, or that he represented far left radicals. He was a representative of the established left, the moderate, liberal wing of an expanding anti-war movement. His real relevance is that he was the first to challenge LBJ as an anti-war candidate and attract activists for this reason.
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Student Afro-American Society (SAS) (est. 1967)
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A black protest group that took part in the occupation of Hamilton Hall during the 1968 protests at columbia university. They came to national attention when (and thus are associated with) MLK was assassinated. Tensions were high between the black community and the administrators at columbia, and when MLK was killed SAS and some students from SDS marched. They occupied hamilton hall and took the dean of colombia hostage, until the police stormed the building and violently took control. They have been encountered in the context of, specifically, the protests at Columbia in 1968, and more broadly, the ongoing civil rights movement. However, the whole context in which the events took place were in the height of the anti-war movement, where emotions were high nationwide because of the high death toll. Their overall significance to the course is that they contributed greatly to the columbia 68 revolt and are yet another shining example of the importance of students to social movements of that time.
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Mark Rudd
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Political activist, anti-war activist, leader and spokesperson for Columbia's SDS chapter, and a leader of students during the columbia protests of 1968. Also a member of the weather underground. Associated with the columbia protests of 68, in particular the anti war protesters. Also associated with the weather underground, specifically the bombing of an apartment in greenwich village that killed 3 people. encountered in the context of the columbia protests and his leadership of the SDS at columbia. significance to the course: student leader and member of weather underground.
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Hubert Humphrey
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vice president under LBJ from 1965- 1969. Was the democratic nominee in 1968 but lost to republican Nixon. Associated and encountered within the 1968 democratic primary. Represented to many the corruption of the democratic party. Was a symbol of the old, more conservative democratic order. Did not have any real support from the movement. Was a pro-war candidate. After RFK was killed, movement was left without any representative within mainstream politics. Significance to the course: demonstrates the ineffectiveness and conservative nature of the democratic party (establishment in general) when it came to its relationship to social change and social movements.
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Abbie Hoffman
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political and social activist who founded the Young international party. Was arrested during the 1968 democratic convention, and became one of the Chicago eight. Associated with 1968 democratic convention, yippies, chicago eight, youth rebellion, the columbia revolt of 68, federal law enforcement harassment. encountered during the 1968 democratic convention. Hoffman was arrested along with another 7 leaders of the protests at the convention. They were indicted on crossing state lines to incite a riot. They were kept in and out of court until 1973. overall significance: federal officers treatment of hoffman was like southern cops to civil rights activists: hostile and abusive. This was typical of establishment attitude to activists of the movement.
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yippies
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The Youth International Party, whose members were called Yippies, was a radically youth-oriented and counter cultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements (they are basically the most overtly politically active hippies. Associated with 1968 democratic convention, Abbie Hoffman, hippies, counter culture, anti war movement, civil rights movement, the conspiracy trial. Encountered within the context of, specifically the 1968 democratic convention, but more broadly the counterculture movement and the antiwar movement. significance to the course: Yippies signify the radicalization of the hippie counter culture movement. They demonstrate the extremes that activists were willing to go to to advocate for change.
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Chicago Eight
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The Chicago Eight (which later became The chicago 7 after charges were dropped on one of them) were the defendants—Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Rennie Davis, John Froines, and Lee Weiner—charged with conspiracy, inciting to riot, and other charges related to protests that took place in Chicago the 1968 Democratic Convention. The trial became a large focus point for the press and featured testimonies from many high-profile leftist activists. The result of the trial was: 2 were found not guilty, the other 5 were sentenced to 5 years in prison and $5000 fine. In an appeal in 1972 the ruling was overturned and the defendants were acquitted. Associated with 1968 Democratic Convention, 1968 presidential election, anti-war movement, yippies, LBJ, Nixon. Encountered within the context of, specifically the 1968 democratic convention, but more broadly the counterculture movement and the antiwar movement. significance to the course: Representative of the establishments intolerance and fightback against the social unrest and activism of the 60's. Many felt that the romantic idea that there would be a revolution in the 60's in America was beaten to death in chicago.
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Vietnam Veterans Against the War (est. 1967)
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Antiwar organization whose members had formerly served (or were currently serving) in Vietnam. It is considered to be one of the most influential anti-war organizations of the 1960's and 70'. Was formed in 1967, by six vietnam vets. Associated with the antiwar movement, the republican national convention of 1972 (which the staged there most famous demonstration), Nixon. Encountered in the context of, specifically the the republican national convention of 1972 (which the staged there most famous demonstration), but more broadly the antiwar movement. Significance to the movement: helped end the vietnam war and make the antiwar movement successful. Also indicative of the broad range of groups involved in the anti war movement--not just hippies/yippies.
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Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964)
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The Gulf of Tonkin resolution is a joint resolution the the U/S congress passed in 1964 in response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident. In august 1964 it was reported a U.S war ship was attacked by a North Vietnamese torpedo boats. A battle commenced and both sides left relatively unscathed. However, the supposed intent of the North Vietnamese was to sink the U.S battleship and thus was seen by many as a blatant act of war. In response congress passed the Tonkin Gulf resolution, which gave Johnson authorization, without a formal declaration of war, for the use of "conventional'' military force in Southeast Asia. Specifically, the resolution authorized the President to do whatever necessary in order to assist "any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty". This included involving armed forces. As the costs of the war mounted, more focus was placed on the resolution, which, as it turned out, had been based on some false information. It was possible that the attack never took place as had been claimed. Antiwar activists advocated for its repeal, claiming that the resolution had given Johnson a 'blank check'. Eventually it was repealed in 1971 under nixon. It is associated with the Vietnam war, LBJ, the Antiwar movement, government corruption, and overreaching executive power. It has been encountered in the context of reading about the escalating U.S military actions in southeast asia and the Johnson administration's foreign policy. Its overall relevance to the course it that it effectively allowed for the vietnam war to take place, and, in its appeal, is symbolic of the power public pressure has over lawmakers and the president.
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George Ball
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U.S diplomat and under secretary of state in the Johnson administration. He strongly opposed the escalation of the vietnam war and warned that the U.S would be dragged into an unwinnable war (he was right). At the time he was laughed at by Johnson and others. Associated with the escalation in vietnam, with those who opposed the war within the johnson administration, LBJ and the antiwar movement. Has been encountered in the context of the escalation of U.S military action in southeast asia. significance to the course: Ball was right. LBJ ignoring him led to the mess that was vietnam.
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My Lai massacre (1968)
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A massacre carried out in 1968 by U.S military on innocent, unarmed civilians in My Lai, vietnam. It is also likely that some women were raped before being killed. The incident prompted global outrage when it became public knowledge in 1969. The massacre also increased domestic opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Associated with vietnam, the antiwar movement, anti-militarism, anti U.S sentiments. Has been encountered in the context of how the anti war activists realized that they must behave peacefully and appear patriotic. The massacre presented activists with an opportunity to show how misguided u.S efforts in the region were. Significance to the course: The massacre, tragic as it was, presented activists with an opportunity to show how misguided U.S efforts in the region were. Was in part responsible for the ending of the war.
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SNCC Position Paper on Vietnam (1966)
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Paper published by the SNCC in which they argue that the struggles to end racism at home and the struggle for the vietnamese people against the American Army are connected and should be unified. SNCC argue that the freedom struggle in the U.S is an alternative to fighting in vietnam. In it they compare the murders of blacks in the south by white authorities to the murder of vietnamese. They repeatedly question the legitimacy of the U.S government, and call for everyone to join the fight for civil rights and other human rights in the U.S rather than right in the war. associated with antiwar movement, civil rights movement, SNCC, LBJ and vietnam. Encountered in the context of understanding how different groups approached the antiwar movement and how they united around it. Overall relevance: important to see the connections between various movements studied, and understand that they are not separate but all merged and were often feeding one another.
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Declaration of Independence from the War in Vietnam (1967)
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Fairly famous speech by Martin Luther King, jr, declaring his opposition to the war in vietnam. In the years prior, MLK had been very reluctant to involve himself in any other political matters for fear of weakening the civil rights cause. By 1967 however, he outright declares his opposition the the war. In the speech he draws allusions between the civil rights struggle and the struggle of the vietnamese people. He also draws attention the the devastating effect the war is having on black men. He discusses what true freedom should be and calls U.S involvement in vietnam a mistake from the start. Associated with, MLK, antiwar movement, civil rights movement, NYC (where he made the speech), shift in MLK's focus. encountered in the context of the growing anti war movement in the late 60's. overall significance: again demonstrates the connected nature of many movements (civil rights and antiwar). Significant in that it likely that MLK's opposition to the war was influential in ending it.
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Michael Ferber
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Activist veteran and author of The resistance. associated with the transition between the 60's and 70's. Antiwar movement, hippies, staughton Lynd (his co-author). Encountered in the context of understanding the transition between the cohesive whole movement of the 60's and the fractured and splintered movement of the 70's.
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Fort Hood Three
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Three soldiers of the US Army - James Johnson, David Samas, and Private Dennis Mora - who refused to be deployed to Vietnam in 1966. They were stationed together at Fort Hood, Texas. Upon finding out they were to be sent to Vietnam, they prepared a joint statement which they intended to deliver during a press conference in New York. However, Mora had to deliver the statement alone after the other two were arrested. IN the statement, they state they are not going to vietnam and proclaim the war unjust, illegal and immoral. They claimed to represent american soldiers everywhere. Associated with protests within the military, anti war movement, vietnam encountered within the context of looking at the vast number of different groups that were opposing the war, from hippies to veterans. Overall significance: There press conference made a big splash. Helped build the antiwar movement and shows how important servicemen within the military were to the antiwar movement.
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gonzo journalism
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Gonzo Journalism is a style of journalism that is written without claims of objectivity, often including the reporter as part of the story via a first-person narrative. The word "gonzo" is believed to be first used in 1970 to describe an article by Hunter S. Thompson, who later popularized the style. The style first appeared in the late 60's and came about because many young people in the movement felt that "there was a credibility gap between the people and the press". it included papers, posters, leaflets and pamphlets disseminating information regarding the movement. associated with hippies, counterculture, second wave 1968-early 70's, hunter s. thompson. encountered within the crest of the second wave: 1968-early 70's. Important part of the developing counter culture. overall significance: helped spread word about events and occurrences within the movement. Established a culture of information as separate from the mainstream, and in this regard essential to the development of counter culture.
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Timothy Leary
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American writer and psychologist who was a big advocate of psychedelic drugs such as LSD. He was a leader in the counter culture movement, often encouraging people to think for themselves, question authority and experiment with drugs and other ways of living. associated with counterculture, LSD, cannabis, Harvard University, psychology. Ram Das, spirituality. encountered within the study of the counterculture, and the drug culture that went along with it. Overall significance: representative of a new way of thinking about the world, of challenging authority and exploring the mind.
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Carlos Castaneda
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An anthropology graduate student at UCLA who wrote about meeting a mexican shaman called Don Juan, who introduced him to mystic visions induced by peyote. Castaneda's book about his experiences was widely read, and seemed to capture the religious and spiritual quest with the promised insights of drug culture. Associated with counter culture, drug culture, peyote, UCLA. The Teachings of Don Juan in 1968 encountered within the context of the counterculture and drug culture. Overall significance: representative of new ways of looking at the world, good example of some revolutionary literature widely read and the power it had on the younger generation and on the movement as a whole.
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"Age of Aquarius"
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refers to the advent of New Age movement in the 1960s and 1970s, and the hippie heyday. Some believed that the arrival of the counterculture in the 60s marked the dawn of the age of aquarius. The band Hair wrote a song called "aquarius" which likely popularized the concept. Associated with hippies, free love, drug culture, counter culture, Hair, New age, communes. encountered in the context of counterculture and hippies. overall significance to the course: showed the optimism and hopeful feelings of the time. Shows that this really did feel like a whole new age was upon us.
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Easy Rider(1969)
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A landmark counter culture movie. Follows two freaks riding through the U.S on their way to california. In many ways captured the spirit of the age. a "touchstone for a generation" that "captured the national imagination," Easy Rider explores the societal landscape, issues, and tensions in the United States during the 1960s, such as the rise and fall of the hippie movement, drug use, and communal lifestyle. Easy Rider is famous for its use of real drugs in its portrayal of marijuana and other substances. Associated with counterculture, hippies, LA, drug culture.encountered within discussion of counterculture, hippies, and zeitgeist of 60's. Film reviews by Gene Moskowitz and Roger Ebert speak to its power and controversy. Overall significance: captured the mood of the time. The famous line the movie ends with, "we blew it", stood for many to be the defining feeling at the end of the 60's.
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Morning Star Ranch (est. 1966)
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Morningstar Commune (also known as Morning Star Ranch and The Digger Farm) was an active counterculture commune in Sebastopol near San Francisco. Morning star ranch was part of the changing society of young adults in the 1960s that traveled back and forth between the Haight-Ashbury district and Sebastopol. associated with hippies, counterculture, haight-ashbury, summer of love. encountered within the context of counterculture, bay area, san francisco. relevance to the course: symbolic of the way that the counterculture scene started off very positively, but quickly descended into problems as the utopian dream died.
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Whole Earth Catalog (1968)
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Who or What? Founded by Stewart Brand, a Stanford grad who believed the image of the entire earth was a power symbol for community and sharing; its image covered the first edition of the Whole Earth Catalog. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Intended to facilitate the creation of "New America"—rural communes in the counterculture 60s that encouraged community efforts, play, and sharing. Declared that the "establishment" had failed. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Cataloged suppliers with inventories that could help individuals build their New America, like wood stoves, wind generators, and relevant books that could be ordered by mail. Letters from readers were included in each publication, sharing ideas about the do-it-yourself lifestyle and promoting the learning or new trades or hobbies. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? The catalog went through four editions and won the National Book Award—its significance allowed the communication and dispersing of the counterculture worldwide, selling a million copies. Further, it inspired the publishing of other guides like Living on the Earth.
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Woodstock Nation (1969)
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Who or What? Woodstock Nation was a book written by Abbie Hoffman, an attendee of the Woodstock Music and Arts Festival, that documented the events that took place at the festival. Woodstock Nation came to describe the generation of hippies that experienced the festival and cultural revolution. What Tim Leary called the "future" of the world—nonviolence, peace, sharing, etc. Woodstock was a commercial festival on a thousand-acre farm near Bethel, New York. Featured performances from Jimi Hendrix, Janice Joplin, the Grateful Dead, Joan Baez, Arlo Guthrie, The Who, Jefferson Airplane, etc. (a couple dozen bands.) The festival originally hoped for 50,000 people to come; eventually saw 400,000 people--mostly youth who associated with the counterculture. Tickets were $18. There was little attempt to enforce drug or nudity laws because the guests had outnumbered the police. The National Guard later arrived. Overcrowding was an issue, and sanitation facilities were inadequate. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? The youth felt like they were in "liberated territory," establishing counterculture rules of sharing food and drink, music playing, lovemaking, and drug use. On the first day, message over speakers: "Help each other...Sharing...Feel the good vibrations." Bethel residents were also involved. They initially feared the event, but when the saw the youth they opened soup kitchens and left their hoses on for drinking and bathing. 3) In what context has it been encountered? The enactment of hippie ideals. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? New York Times wrote, "Hippies have never been so successful." It was a highly publicized and watched event. It came to describe an entire mindset of a generation and the 400,000 attendees towards promoting the nonviolence and sharing they experienced at the Woodstock Festival.
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"The [Manson] Family"
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Who or What? The Family was a cult led by Charles Manson. They were described as "hippies" to public by police and Time. Their murder of Sharon Tate was widely covered in the press. Charles Manson had a rough childhood; mother was an alcoholic prostitute, never knew his father. Lived in foster homes, juvenile detentions, prisons. Diagnosed with sociopathic personality. When paroled, lived in Haight-Ashbury after the Summer of Love and gathered about twenty followers from unhappy families. Sexually manipulated teenage female runaways to find new followers. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? The Family's association with the hippie movement led the public to demonize hippies. Hippies: complained that the Family was being used to demonize the hippie movement by conservatives unfamiliar with communal living. Communal living =/= sexual cult. Opened up conversations about the assumption that being a hippie = sex. Anderson argues that much of the fascination over the Manson case was that it explored the sexual fantasies and assumptions that suits had about communal living, e.g. gonzo journalism by Richard Atcheson. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Touches on the larger image after the Summer of Love where the Haight-Ashbury area filled with runaways, rampant drug use, and health and sanitation issues. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Anderson argues that the Sharon Tate case signaled a demise to the perception of hippies as loving, peaceful people. Anderson may have overstated the impact that this case gave in the demise of the hippies' image, without giving context to the larger issues that the Haight-Ashbury area had—see #3.
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Altamont(1969)
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Who or What? Free concert at Altamont Speedway near Livermore, California with the Rolling Stones. 300,000 participants in the hills of Altamont. Few arrests, but problems with violence. Near the stage, there were drunken brawls, violence, and "bad acid trips." Rolling Stones gave Hell's Angels $500 worth of beer to guard the stage; they beat drugged kids who tried to dance. Hell's Angels also killed African-American Meredith Hunter, while the audience did nothing. Meredith Hunter had attempted to climb the stage, and may have had a gun. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Attempted to recreate the feeling of Woodstock in the west; ended with the media showing the demise of the counterculture. Many were disgusted by the violence and death of Hunter. The commercialization of the hippie movement; the audience were spectators and not creators of the environment. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Compare/contrast with Woodstock. Compare/contrast with other forms of commodification of the hippie movement (despite this being a free concert.) Compare with other failures and successes of re-enacting hippie ideals. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Hippie/counterculture seen as destructive, drugged out, irresponsible, and violent.
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Human Be-In (1967)
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Who or What? All-day event in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in January 14, 1967. Date was determined by an astrologer. "Union of love and activism" for Berkeley activists and SF's spiritual community. Free sandwiches, donated by LSD chemist, with LSD. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Nonviolence, anti-war talks. Tim Leary's "turn on, tune in, drop out." Diversity—large mix of people; combined the humanists with the political movement. Prefaced the Summer of Love. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Gave way for the Bay area's association with the hippie movement. "Consciousness." Showed signs of issues the movement may face in the future: lost children, drug use. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Leads up to the Summer of Love. Compare to Altamont almost three years later.
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"The Digger Papers (1968)
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Who or What? Free radical publication from the Haight-Ashbury Area by the Diggers, a group of hippies who worked to weld a political movement to the communal lifestyle. The Diggers gave away free food and clothes at their Free Store. Digger papers a "blueprint" for their ideals: communistic living, free families in free cities. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Inspired by the English Diggers, a 1600s communist-agrarian group. Believed in free sharing and promoted communistic ideas. Free food, free lodging, free clothes, free concerts. The Digger Papers outlines several components of the free city: Free City Switchboard/Information Center - reference point for all resources Free Food Storage and Distribute Center - pool together welfare food stamps and open a free restaurant. Also deliver food to the ghettoes. Free City Garage and Mechanics - to repair vehicles used in various services Free City Bank and Treasury - "make free money" Free City Legal Assistance However, "no honky, liberal bleeding heart, guilt-ridden advocates of justice, but first class case-winners..." Free City Housing and Work Space, Stores, Hospital Free City Environmental Design Free City Schools Co-Op Farms Free Events ...the list goes on. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Compare/contrast with "Yippie Manifesto." Hippiedom and the Haight-Ashbury movement. Use of free publications to send out ideals of the hippie movement. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Epitomized the enactment of counterculture ideals in the Haight-Ashbury area. Gave way to the Yippies.
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"Yippie Manifesto"(1968)
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Who or What? Yippies were an alliance of activists and hippies—politically-active hippies. The "Yippie Manifesto" expressed political confrontation with use of guerilla theatre. Encouraged "rebels, youth spirits, rock minstrels, bomb throwers, bank robbers...poets, street folk, liberated women, professors" to gather on Election Day and vote. Encouraged free food, also encouraged to "force the National Guard to protect every polling place in the country." "rioters, anarchists, Commies" - incendiary call for action. Anti-Nixon 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Anarchism, communism, revolutions. Counterculture rebellion in political action and vote. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Compare/contrast with "The Digger Papers." Use of free publications to send out ideals of the hippie movement. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Brought together political action with the communal living movement. Radicalization.
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homophile movement
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- Began in 1950-51 and lasted for approximately two decades - Catalysed by the freedoms and persecutions of WWII: many men and women from all over the nation were taken from their communities and put into intimate same-sex environments. They were also taken to port cities, where vice was most prominent: gay servicemen were able to frequent underground gay bars or cruise for guys around the city easily. In response to this, the military enacted anti-gay measures to attempt to eradicate the threats of homosexual acts: they screened applicants and denied those who were suspected of having homosexual tendencies. This simultaneous freedom and persecution helped galvanise ex-servicemen and those mistreated by the system into a multi-faceted fledgling movement soon after the war. This was both catalysed and hindered by the McCarthy baby-boom era, where the nuclear, heteronormative family was idealised and deviancy was prosecuted. - Influenced greatly by Alfred Kinsey's report 'Sexual Behavior in the Human Male' (1948), which found homosexual tendencies to be far more pervasive in American society than previously known. - Harry Hay's Mattachine Society was greatly influential in the early Homophile Movement
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Lavender Scare
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Refers to the fear and persecution of homosexuals in the 1950s, paralleled the anti-communist campaign of McCarthyism. - Psychiatric community still regarded homosexuality as a mental illness: gay women and men were considered susceptible to blackmail thus constituting a security risk for classified information. - In 1950 the State Department coerced 91 homosexuals into resignation - Significance: indicative of wider McCarthyism era persecution — an era of animosity towards aspects of society that threaten the heteronormative, nuclear family. The threat of Communism became an excuse to persecute all societal deviants.
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Harry Hay
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Founder of Mattachine Society, 1950, first sustained gay rights group in U.S - Influenced greatly by Marxism, held the idea that homosexuals were a cultural minority, similar to African Americans. - His politics led to his resignation from the Mattachine's leadership in 1953 after the majority of members became concerned about the radical left slant of the organisation. - After he left he became largely disillusioned with the homosexual political scene but remained anti-assimilationist: -- Hay did not want homosexuals to discard their unique attitudes in favour of adopting cultural traits of heterosexual society for the mere purpose of societal acceptance. -- Interestingly, this is similar to the Black Power movements of the 1970s and 1980s, who advocated campaigns such as 'Black is Beautiful' to combat assimilationist tactics of other Civil Rights organisations
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Mattachine Society (est. 1950)
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Many argue the Gay Rights Movement begins with the Mattachine Society - Formed by Harry Hay - At first, difficult for Hay to attract members — ideology of society difficult to conceive with no precedent - Founding members were mostly members of the Communist Party, and the initial structure was based on the Communist Party: cell groups and levels of membership. - Initial goals were: (1) Unify homosexuals isolated from own kind. (2) Educate homosexuals and heterosexuals toward an ethical homosexual culture paralleling cultures of the Negro, Mexican and Jewish peoples. (3) Lead the more socially conscious homosexual to provide leadership to the whole mass of social deviates. (4) Assist gays who are victimised daily as a result of oppression - Shifted in 1953 towards more liberal and less radical ideology: Harry Hay forced to leave
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The Homosexual in America: A Subjective Approach (1951)
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Written by Edward Sagarin - Very influential in the gay rights movement because used sociology and criminology to debunk previous myths, and argued that gay men and lesbians deserved civil rights as members of a large, unrecognised minority. Sympathetically presented the plight of homosexuals: highlighted the discrimination they faced and called for a repeal of anti-homosexuality laws
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ONE, Inc. (est. 1952)
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Organisation that produced a magazine dedicated to homosexuals. Emerged from the Mattachine Society discussion meeting in 1952. - "The mystic bond of brotherhood makes all men one." - 1953 published first ONE magazine, first pro-gay public magazine, sold openly on the streets of LA - 1954 U.S Post Office Department declared the magazine 'obscene' - ONE sued and won in 1958 (Roth v. United States) - Dedicated to social issues but also to academic exploration of homosexuality - Women were members but limited, and ONE helped support Daughters of Bilitis in their launching of The Ladder, a newsletter
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Daughters of Bilitis (DOB) (est. 1955)
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First lesbian civil and political rights organisation - Formed in SF 1955 by Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, lasted for 14 years - Conceived first as social alternative to lesbian bars, which were raided and harassed by police - Firstly, focused on supporting women to come out, and assimilation into mainstream culture. Workshops on how to dress inconspicuously. Aimed to reduce the threat of witch-hunt era 1950s. - Significance: DOB's ideology of assimilation matched the new Mattachine Society's ideology in 1953: instead of seeing homosexuals as a cultural minority (as Harry Hay had originally), the new ideology sought to normalise homosexuality, and assimilate into society.
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Florida Legislative Investigation Committee ("Johns Committee") (est. 1956)
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Established during era of Second Red Scare and Lavender Scare. Similar to McCarthy tactics: investigation of potentially subversive activities by academics, civil rights groups and suspected communist organisations; attempted to eliminate homosexuals from state government and public education - Headed by state senator and former governor, Charley Eugene Johns - Committee had subpoena power: took witnesses, employed secret informants, spread terror among students and academics. All homosexual acts were crimes under Florida law at that time and remained so until 2003. Admission of homosexuality constituted moral turpitude and was ground for firing or expulsion - Lawmakers grew tired of the drama, eliminated funding 1965
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The Ladder(est. 1956)
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First nationally distributed lesbian publication in the U.S. Published between 1956-1970 - Acted as primary method of communication for the DOB - Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon helped edit the first publication, both had experience with journalism - Became more politically urgent in 1963: covers became pictures of lesbians, rather than drawings. Focus on visibility. Authors encouraged to use real names rather than pseudonyms - Disputes between younger and older members of the editorial team led to its demise: wealthier, more connected and older members such as the founders of DOB Martin and Lyon joined NOW and encouraged others to do so. Younger members did not have the funds to continue the publication, and did not see the appeal of NOW, as they tended to prefer more confrontational, radical, methods of protest
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Mattachine Review (est. 1955)
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- Magazine publication from the Mattachine Society - Less confrontational than ONE, focused on gay history and culture; urged moderate rather than radical approaches to civil rights issues - Printed by a small business owned by editors - Ceased publication in 1966 - Not as popular as ONE, but more popular than The Ladder
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Frank Kameny
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Born 1925, died 2011 - Dismissed from position as astronomer in U.S army in 1957 due to his sexuality - Led him to spearhead a new period of militancy in the homosexual rights movement of the early 1960s - Argued his case in Supreme Court in 1961 — court denied his petition but notably the first civil rights claim in Supreme Court based on sexual orientation - 1961 co-founded Mattachine Society DC - Inspired by Stokely Carmichael's 'Black is Beautiful' created the slogan 'Gay is Good' - Launched some of the earliest public protests by gays and lesbians with picket lines at the White House on April 1965 - 1963 drafted a bill to end sodomy laws — it was used as a basis for the legislation that finally passed in 1993
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Janus Society (est. 1962)
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Early homophile organisation create when a group of Philadelphia-based gay and lesbian activists began meeting but were denied Mattachine Society status. More militant than Mattachine society - Publisher of DRUM magazine (est. 1964), one of the earliest LGBT-interest publications in the U.S. Included combination of news and erotica. 1965 published first full-frontal male nude pictorial in an American magazine. Monthly circulation of 10,000 in late 1950s. 1967 indicted for publishing and distributing obscene material, editor Clark Polak chose to cease publication in order to avoid prison sentence. - Helped organise early LGBT rights demonstrations
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Clark Polak
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Born 1937, died 1980. Journalist and LGBT activist - Created and edited DRUM magazine - President of Philadelphia based Janus Society
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Tavern Guild (est. 1962)
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Formed from a casual gathering of SF gay bar owners and employees who met to socialise and share news of interest - Originally established to organise alternating business on Tuesday afternoons when customers were few and far between, but grew to fight for policies that helped protect bartenders, owners, and patrons from continued problems - Also acted as a charitable organisation, staging fundraising events for homphile organisations like the Mattachine Society, Daughters of Bilits and the Society for Individual Rights - José Sarria chosen by Tavern to lead the project 'Imperial Court' — organisation to maintain social and benevolent activities - Tavern became fundraising and philanthropic hub - Tavern widely recognised as the reason bars achieved stability and political power: it helped politicians realise the pink dollar (the money owned by LGBT people) and its political potential
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Society for Individual Rights (SIR) (est. 1964)
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Mission: SF based, public affirmation of gay and lesbian identity, elimination of victimless crime laws, provide range of social services (including legal aid) to gays and "difficulties", promote sense of gay and lesbian community - Opened first gay community centre in the nation 1966 - Monthly magazine, Vector, - More assertive and confident than older homophile movements, such as the Mattachine Society. More democratic and inclusive. Basis of later, more radical and brash gay rights movements (Gay Liberation Front, for e.g) - Influenced by the civil rights movement, Society for Individual Rights demanded equal rights and decried government-sanctioned discrimination - Influence diminished by the late 1970s
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Vanguard (est. 1966)
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Group of LGBT youth gathered in the Tenderloin to literally clean the streets. They wanted to reclaim the streets for those society rejected. - Held signs demanding rights, supported by clergy — one of the first 'gay liberation' organisations in the country - Shows that different generations found voices in different organisations. Also shows how religious institutions often helped drive progress; members of local churches joined the Vanguard 'clean up'.
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José Sarria
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Born 1922 (still alive, what a hero!) - Political activist from SF - Well known for drag performances at the Black Cat Bar, one of the oldest and most prominent gay bars in SF, during the 1950s and 1960s - Drag act would entertain but also encourage audience to live openly - Served in the armed during WWII - Co-founded League for Civil Education, Tavern Guild and Society for Individual Rights
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Homosexual Law Reform Society (est. 1958)
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British organisation campaigned for changes in laws that had criminalised homosexual relations between men - In response to the Conservative govt's Wolfenden Report, academics and eminent politicians signed a petition to implement the report's recommendations: that the laws should be changed to stop discrimination against gay men - Led the campaign which helped pass Sexual Offences Act 1967 - Criticised by Gay Liberation Front for not going far enough
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Gay Liberation Front (GLF) (est. 1969)
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Formed in NYC immediately after Stonewall riots, ended in 1972 due to internal rivalries - Diverged from Homophile movement in 4 ways: (1) Emphasis on coming out, (2) Emphasis on casualising sex: public sex, intergenerational sex, casual sex, (3) much more radical in its politics; leftist, countercultural (4) scale and scope much greater than previous organisations, loud, brash, public, large-scale - Organised march in response to Stonewall, demanding an end to persecution of homosexuals - Broad political platform, denouncing racism and declaring support for struggles abroad, such as independence movements; also supported Black Panther Party; generally anti-capitalist, attacked nuclear family and traditional gender roles (broadness maybe reason of demise) - Manifesto advocated violence in response to violence
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Third World Gay Revolution (est. 1970)
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1970 group of Black and Latino lesbians and gay men split from GLF to form Third World Gay Revolution - Argued they suffered triple oppression of capitalism, racism and sexism: modeled manifesto on Black Panther's Ten Point Program - Organised consciousness raising groups: explore oppression and form communities — encouraged white middle class gay liberationists to join in and confront their privileges - Success momentary, not sure why?
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Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries (STAR) (est. 1970)
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Transgender activist organisation founded in 1970 by Masha p. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera in response to lack of GLF's ability to fight for trans* issues - Advocate on behalf of homeless drag queens and runaways - Established STAR house, a shelter for trans* people - Feminist groups criticised STAR for embodying all of 'the things that they were trying to break free of—high heels, girdles, corsets, stockings'
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Queens Liberation Front (est. 1969)
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Gay Activists Alliance Philadelphia created Queens Liberation Caucus, later named Radical Queens - Viewed itself as part of the gay and lesbian movement - The above is the only information Stein has on QLC, and there's literally nothing on the internet. Don't think she's gonna give us this one!
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"zaps"
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Form of public and direct political confrontation popularized by GAA in 1970s - Meant to cause embarrassment and disruption/organized quickly - Fundamental part of gay/lesbian/LGBT movement - Wide variety of venues, speeches, broadcasts, fundraising events; targeted public and political figures
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Second Congress to Unite Women (1970)
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NOW sponsered event in NY - Betty Friedman had called lesbians "lavender menace" - 20 protestors from GLF zapped Second Congress to United Women - joined with lesbian feminists afterwards to form Radicalesbians - Because of protesters, women's movement would later affirm lesbianism when individuals were attacked as lesbians - Their manifesto "The Woman-Identified Woman" would also become influential - primal commitment to each other, including sexually
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The Furies(est. 1971)
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Influential radical lesbian feminist group - All-white - Significant in starting lesbian separatism
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lesbian separatism
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Influenced by the Furies in 1971 Founding Statement - Based on call to overcome male heterosexual power and privilege; to exist relatively independently - Sometimes created rural communes, called "Lesbian Nation" but still debated nationally amongst lesbian feminists - Many became separatists after encountering sexism and homophobia in other movements
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Gay Activists Alliance (GAA) (est. 1969)
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Mission: formed in response to GLF (Gay Liberation Front) radicalism. GAA supported radical movements, but focused solely on gay and lesbian issues. - Actions: provided assistance to individuals in need, social support agencies and activities; focused on police activity, such as harassment and arrests; lobbied to change discriminatory sex laws - Historical significance: inspired foundation of many similar groups; included many former homophiles and gay liberationists but rejected radical coalitions and "structureless structure"; still largely white, middle class gay men
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National Coalition of Gay Organizations Platform (1972)
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Created as platform for 1972 national elections in February of that year, addressed: - laws against private and consensual sex acts/cross-dressing - federal law against employment, housing and public accommodation discrimination - executive order banning discrimination against gays/lesbians in federal positions - repeal of ban against gay/lesbian immigrants - end laws on age of consent (controversial point)
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Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund (est. 1973)
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Major advocacy group - Turned away from grassroots movement style of activism, relied on paid staff, professional fundraising and centralized decision making - Won public support and political power - Also white, middle class, urban and did not take on class/race issues - Coordinating legal team in Lawrence v. Texas (2003), decision by Supreme Court that struck down sodomy laws in Texas; made same-sex sex legal in all states
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National Gay Task Force (NGTF) (est. 1973)
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Mission to build grassroots power of the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community. Runs National Conference on LGBT Equality which receives 2,000 attendees each year. Take on issues such as anti-gay regulations in churches, successfully lobbied against U.S Public Health Service to stop certifying gay immigrants as 'psychopathic personalities', released first study of private sector workplace discrimination based on sexual orientation and launches education campaign in response to Anita Bryant's anti-gay campaign. Historical significance: similar to NAACP as it looks to tackle institutional homophobia by lobbying government, politicians and releasing reports. Conference is similar to tactics used by the Women's movement, where different groups were encouraged to discuss important issues, disseminating information and raising awareness.
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Gay Rights National Lobby (GRNL) (est. 1976)
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Late '70s, early '80s, along with National Gay and Lesbian Task Force among earliest organisations to engage in lobbying legislators for lesbian and gay rights. One of the original members set up the Human Rights Campaign Fund, which became the Human Rights Campaign (now the largest LGBT rights non-profit in the world). The GRNL successfully fought against government policies, such as those of the Reagan administration, the "Family Protection Act" which disproportionately administered benefits to families with children, indirectly discriminating non-heteronormative families. Similar significance to National Gay Task Force, top down discrimination.
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Human Rights Campaign Fund (HRCF) (est. 1980)
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Steve Endean, who had worked for Gay Rights National Lobby (GRNL), set up what is now the largest LGBT equality-rights advocacy group in the U.S and arguably the world, the Human Rights Campaign. Originally it was established to raise money for politicians who were gay-friendly in their policies. According to their own statistics, they now have more that one million members. It has two branches: one of research, advocacy and education and one of political activism with lobbying and the mobilisation of grassroots action. The HRCF, like the National Gay Task Force and Gay Rights National Lobby, are interconnected and have similar tactics. First presidential candidate ever supported was Bill Clinton, in 1992. In 1993 it began a project called 'National Coming Out Day' — encouraging LGBT all over the country to declare their sexualities loud and proud. This is similar to the campaigns Harvey Milk pursued in his final years: raising the point that LGBT people were everywhere; they are your daughters, sons, mothers, fathers, and could not be ignored.
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Gay and Lesbian Advocates and Defenders (GLAD) (est. 1978)
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Legal rights organisation which aims to end discrimination based on sexual orientation, HIV status, gender identity and expression. Founded by John Ward, based in Boston and serves the New England area. Provides litigation and advocacy mostly, but also provides information hotlines and websites. Fought legal battles, such as 'Fricke v. Lynch' 1980 where an 18 year old student won the right to bring a same-sex date to a high school dance. At forefront of movement for same-sex marriage in Massachusetts 2003, successfully argued that marriage restricted to heterosexual couples was a violation of the state constitution. Similar to Gay Rights National Lobby and National Gay Task Force insofar as it focuses on fighting discrimination in a top-down manner: laws, legislation, litigation. This, as evidenced within the Civil Rights Movement, is successful in tackling de jure discrimination, but often does not reach de facto discrimination, or fight against heternormativity.
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National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights (1979)
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Large political rally that took place in Washington D.C in 1979 on 10 year anniversary of Stonewall Riots — significant that mainstream gay rights movement decided Stonewall was a significant marker. Between 75-125k LGBT people and straight allies, demanding equal civil rights and urging the passage of protective civil rights legislation. Initially plans for march were met with resistance from LGBT organisations, who claimed it wasn't in response to any particular threat or enemy. March went ahead, speakers such as Audre Lorde, Flo Kennedy, Allen Ginsberg; organisations such as N.O.W, National Gay Task Force, Lesbian Feminism Liberation, but largely white, liberal, non-radical. Significant because 16 years after Civil Rights March on Washington — tried and tested tool to garner attention, problem is that it waters down the aims of radical groups by homogenising the gay rights movement into one entity, rather than a multi-faceted intersectional, every-changing movement.
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Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays(PFLAG) (est. 1973)
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Mission: an organisation that supports homosexuals and their families. Encourages families to support their LGBT members. Aims to act as a bridge between the gay community and the heterosexual community. - Actions: In response to a homophobic attack on her son, Jeanne Manford wrote a letter of protest to the New York Post, identifying herself as a mother of a gay protester; she complained of police inaction. Did not expand to include bisexuals or transgender people until 1993. But 1993 was early for gay rights organisations to include transgender people in its policy and aims: PFLAG was the first national organisation to do so. Campaigns included 'Stay Close' which aimed to encourage families to support their LGBT members. Earlier campaigns included television commercials which publicly shamed prominent politicians by including their homophobic/transphobic quotes. - Historical Significance: In a sense, PFLAG, much like Gay Fathers Coalition, bridged the gap between grassroots and top-down by creating networks of support in local communities, but also lobbying nationally: targeting politicians and legislators.
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Gay Fathers Coalition (est. 1979)
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Aimed to create a network of support for gay fathers. Until 1986, excluded lesbian mothers. Name changed this year to Gay and Lesbian Parents Coalition International — grassroots chapter-based organisation whose intentions were to connect with and support local gay and lesbian parenting groups while simultaneously advancing the cause of the gay and lesbian parenting community. Different to Gay Rights National Lobby, Humans Rights Campaign Fund or Gay and Lesbian Advocates and Defenders because it focuses on local community and grass-roots activism. Its primary goal is not to lobby government for institutional change, but to provide support networks for gay and lesbian parents. This is direct help to ease the effects of discrimination, rather than focusing on the root causes.
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Transsexual Action Organization (est. 1970)
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Mission: the nation's first national trans* rights organisation, established by Angela Douglas. - Actions: Can't find actions in reading (Stein) or online :S - Historical Significance: Members were often involved in gay liberation groups simultaneously, such as the Gay Liberation Front. Trans* issues became more accepted by gay rights organisations during the 1970s than they had been during the homophile movement. However, they still were met with suspicion and scorn by gay activists and feminist organisations. The popular discourse among radical feminists at the time (and still today, to some extent) is that women who aren't born women biologically cannot truly understand women's oppression and therefore do not belong in women's organisations.
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National Coalition of Black Gays (est. 1978)
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Mission: Founder Billy Jones reacted to the lack of African American involvement in Gay political groups. He wanted to bring together Gay, Bi, Lesbian and Transpersons who had "a strong desire to become politically involved in the Gay/Lesbian civil rights movement. It was an attempt to go beyond the agenda of the Black Gay Social Clubs of the day and address the issue of homophobia in Black communities and organizations." -Billy Jones. - Actions: Jones 'lit the fire' of the organisation by placing ads in DC Gay papers. One of the first organisations to initiate HIV/AIDS prevention efforts in the black community, including pamphlets that used coded terms familiar in the black community. Got involved in the Gay March on Washington to make sure "this was not going to be a White Gay event." -Louis Hughes. They organised the first National Conference of Third World Lesbians and Gays: gays of colour came together for workshops and networking, Audre Lorde delivered the keynote address. - Historical Significance: When the National Gay Task Force (NGTF) organised a meeting with White House officials to discuss Gay Rights, they invited several organisations but did not invite the National Coalition of Black Gays. This is a common theme throughout the gay rights movement, although inclusion of ethnic minorities did become more and more commonplace.
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Black and White Men Together (est. 1980)
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Mission: to maintain numerous local chapters, hold social functions, discussion groups, and an annual conference. Committed to fostering a better understanding of issues across colour lines and combating discrimination in the lesbian and gay community and society at large. Focus on creating supportive environments for interracial relationships and friendships. - Actions: provided social environment conducive to interracial friendships and relationships. Provided financial and letter writing support for national campaigns. Held regional and national meetings to share ideas and network. - Historical significance: like many gay organisations during the early 1980s, the membership were greatly affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. A huge proportion of the organisation died from HIV/AIDS related illnesses, many were murdered (4 at the hands of Jeffrey Damner), many people of colour were pressured by radical political organisations to renounce their interracial preferences and embrace their own race, and white members continued to feel pressure from white society to steer away from interracial relationships. The obstacles this organisation met were indicative of the problems faced by many LGBT organisations of the time: the intersectional nature of oppression meant all LGBT people could not find their place in one organisation, and discrimination did not diminish to acceptable levels.
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Harvey Milk
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Basic Biographic Details: B. 1930, D. 1978 (assassinated by Dan White, who received only a 'manslaughter' verdict for the double murder of Milk and San Francisco's Mayor Moscone). First openly gay person to be elected to public office in California. Was elected onto San Francisco's Board of Supervisors. During his 11 months in office he passed a stringent gay rights ordinance for the city - Political Actions: Coordinated with businesses to create jobs for gay persons, using tactics such as boycotts to coerce corporations into signing union contracts. He had the charisma to attract a team of dedicated workers, and he had the energy to motivate these workers to help him mobilise the community around him. - Historical Significance: Milk, during the early 1970s, was able to work during a time of little organised resistance to the gay rights movement. However, in response to well-organised gay activists' efforts to pass anti-discrimination civil rights legislation in Miami, Florida, Anita Bryant and an organised, well-funded group of conservative christians headed a backlash campaign entitled 'Save Our Children' which claimed the new ordinance infringed on religious freedoms to teach biblical morality. Furthermore, Milk and his fellow activists pursued similar tactics to those of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement: boycotting products and encouraging support of minority-owned businesses was a common trend for the SCLC.
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Anita Bryant
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Basic Biography: singer, former Miss Oklahoma beauty pageant winner and outspoken critic of homosexuality. Became spokeswoman of the Florida Citrus Commission in 1969 and was featured on their commercials - Actions: In response to 1977 Dade County, Florida's ordinance that banned discrimination against sexual minorities Bryant led a highly publicised campaign to repeal the legislation. Her campaign was called 'Save Our Children' and based on conservative christian beliefs that homosexuality is sinful and that homosexuals recruit and abuse children. 'Save Our Children' was successful and led to a repeal of the progressive legislation, the vote being 69% to 31%. In 1977 Florida legislators also successfully instituted a measure that prohibits gay adoption. Her success, however, galvanised Gay Rights Groups and led to boycotts of Florida Citrus Commission orange juice. Eventually many celebrities supported the boycott, including Barbra Streisand and Jane Fonda. Bryant lost her contract with the Florida Citrus Commission in 1979 due to bad publicity. It wasn't until 1998 that Dade County reinstated the anti-discrimination ordinance. - Historical Significance: Shows how organised opposition to the gay rights movement found political and popular support throughout the 1970s. Unlike the Civil or Women's rights movements, legislation was not always permanent; political gains were often reversed and fought over for decades. Anita Bryant was just one person, but her 'Save Our Children' Campaign garnered over 60,000 signatures; everyday people were uneasy about the Gay Rights Campaign too.
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Briggs Initiative (1978)
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Basic Information: Also known as California Proposition 6, sponsored by John Briggs, a conservative state legislator from Orange County. The Prop failed but would have banned gays and lesbians (along with, perhaps, anyone who supported gay rights) from working in California's public schools. - More details: Harvey Milk, along with many other California-based gay rights activists and organisations, were instrumental in fighting the measure. Eventually Governor Ronald Reagan and President Jimmy Carter spoke out against the Prop, and significantly it was the first failure in the anti-gay rights movement which began with Anita Bryant's 'Save Our Children' campaign. - Wider Significance: It would be reasonable to argue that the success of Anita Bryant in repealing Dade County's ordinance (which had ruled discrimination based on sexual orientation illegal) helped galvanise support against the Briggs Initiative. However, at the start of September 1978, 61% voters supported prop 6, 31% opposed. By the end of the month, thanks to relentless campaigning by Milk, Sally Gearheat, Gwen Craig, Bill Krause and many more, only 45% were in favour. It's also significant that Reagan wrote an official letter of opposition to the proposition a week before his election to become President: it was acceptable for a presidential candidate to announce 'homosexuality is not a contagious disease like the measles. Prevailing scientific opinion is that an individual's sexuality is determined at a very early age and that a child's teachers do not really influence this.' and still win the election. However, 2,8m (41%) still voted in favour of the proposition, which indicates the entire Californian population were far from onboard with the Gay Rights Movement.
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Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) (est. 1985)
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Basic Information: Non-governmental media monitoring organisation which promotes the image of LGBT people in the media. Created in response to the New York Post's HIV/AIDS coverage, which was deemed defamatory and sensationalised. GLAAD put pressure on the New York Post and, later, the New York Times and national media. Strives to promote positive portrayals of LGBT people in media by encouraging journalists, writers and other creators to use its preferred terminology, portray the LGBT community in what it sees as an unbiased and inclusive way. - Actions: 1987 successfully lobbied the New York Times to use better language when talking about homosexuals: the publication agreed to use 'gay' instead of derogatory terms. GLAAD provides stories to media outlets that involve members of the LGBT community that may otherwise be overlooked: emphasising the importance of publicising hate crimes, such as the murders of Matthew Shepard, Brandon Teena and Angie Zapata amongst others. - Historical Significance: Entertainment Weekly later named GLAAD one of Hollywood's most powerful entities, the Los Angeles Times named GLAAD as one of the most successful organisations lobbying media for inclusion. This is a particularly successful aspect of the Gay Rights Movement, perhaps because many openly gay, wealthy and powerful women and men have held positions in media organisations, and have had influence in Hollywood for many decades.
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ACLU Lesbian and Gay Rights Project (est. 1986)
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Mission: organisation that works for an America free of discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, where LGBT people can live openly, where our identities, relationships and families are respected, and where there is fair treatment on the job, in schools, housing, public places, health care and government programs. Seeks to do this by changing the law and thereby convince Americans that sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination is wrong. - Actions: The American Civil Liberties Union brought first LGBT rights case in 1936, set up LGBT Project in 1986. Has consistently fought on issues such as 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell,' anti-adoption/custody laws, anti-equal marriage laws. It also works to support bias-free environments for teachers and pupils: fighting for rights to establish gay support networks, wear non-conforming attire at school dances and bring same-sex dates. - Significance: Similar to the NAACP, the American Civil Liberties Union's Lesbian and Gay Rights Project aims to tackle discrimination by changing laws, on the premise that laws encourage change in the hearts and minds of the American population.
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Sharon Kowalski
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Who or What? A Minnesota lesbian with disabilities who was at the center of a guardianship dispute involving her partner and parents. In 1983, she was disabled in a car accident and a judge selected her father as her legal guardian despite her having a long-term partner, Karen Thompson. Her partner was granted hospital visitation and medical consultation rights. Eventually, Thompson's rights and contact with Kowalski were cut despite Kowalski's request to go home with her. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Took a decade before Kowalski was allowed to go home with her partner. Showed larger discrimination against LGBT unions and rights. Publicity allowed public education about her case and LGBT discrimination. Impacted a slow change to disallow discriminatory stimulations to LGBT parents and partners. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Larger developments on LGBT family life and rights. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Legalities of LGBT discrimination. Media representation and advocacy.
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ACLU Transsexual Rights Committee (est. 1980)
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Who or What? Formed by the ACLU to address the rights of transsexuals, and targeted discriminatory laws in employment and healthcare. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Again, legal interaction to defend rights in the larger LGBT movement as a civil liberties issue. 3) In what context has it been encountered? See 3. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Not all transsexuals felt connected to the larger LGBT movement however, so this committee focused specifically on them to ensure that their rights were connected to the broader civil liberties movement.
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Gay Men's Health Crisis (GMHC)(est. 1982)2
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Who or What? AIDS service organization founded in New York to address the failure of the healthcare system. Larry Kramer was a founder. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Mobilized voice and used media to spread their message, alarming people about AIDs and its impact on the gay male population. Challenged government officials for remaining silent about the epidemic and providing inadequate funding for AIDs programs. Along with other ASOS, launched community-based research projects and criticized scientific researchers, public health officials, and drug companies for impeding the development of safe, effective, and affordable treatments. 3) In what context has it been encountered? ASOS (AIDs service organizations) were established in context of "the failures of the healthcare system to address the epidemic's causes and consequences." GMHC's sexually explicit educational materials led to the Helms Amendment, which banned the use of federal funds for AIDs education. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Larry Kramer and GMHC gave voice to address the failures of the healthcare system in response to the needs of the gay male population.
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Larry Kramer
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1) Who or What? Playwright and novelist who founded GMHC. Alarmed the gay population about the dangers of AIDs and its impact on the gay male population. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Promoted gay political action, and cautioned against sexual promiscuity to avoid infection by AIDs. 3) In what context has it been encountered? He was an advocate for gay political action, and was angry about the apathy in the population. Others believed this was a form of victim-blaming. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? His activism promoted ACT UP, the Aids Coalition to Unleash Power, "diverse, non-partisan group of individuals united in anger and committed to direct action to end the AIDs crisis." Gave voice to the movement, although not one that was consistent with the entire movement (many gay activists disagreed with his calls to action.)
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NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt (est. 1987)
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Conceived in 1985 by AIDS activist Cleve Jones during the candlelight march, in remembrance of the 1978 assassinations of San Francisco Supervisor Harvey Milk and Mayor George Moscone. First major display on the National Mall during the March on Washington. Eventually included more than 40,000 individual panels. Humanized the AIDS epidemic.
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Bowers v. Hardwick (1986)
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Who or What? Supreme Court upheld state sodomy laws and ridiculed claims of gays, lesbians, and people with HIV/AIDS in their decision for Bowers v. Hardwick. Michael Hardwick had been arrested for engaging in consensual sam-sex sex in his home. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Continued discrimination, marginalized people with HIV and AIDS. The Court's precedents for marital and reproductive privacy did not apply to this case, because the homosexual acts occurred outside of marriage or family. Saw "immorality" as a justified reason for banning same-sex sex. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Reagan reductions in AIDS spending. Justice Law Department announced that federal law did not prohibit employment based on HIV/AIDS. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Damaged belief in liberal reform.
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Helms Amendment (1987)
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Who or What? Prohibited the use of federal funds for AIDS education or prevention materials that promoted, encouraged, or condoned homosexual sex or illegal drug use. U.S. Senator Jesse Helms had brought sexually explicit GMHC education materials to Reagan's attention, which led to bipartisan support to pass the Helms Amendment. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? There was tones of homosexual discrimination in the Helms Amendment (refused to condone homosexual sex.) ASOS continued to work to advocate for AIDS awareness and initiatives despite the Helms Amendment. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Reagan had initiated a Presidential Commission on the HIV Epidemic, but included no AIDS activists, only one gay male, and many anti-gay conservatives. See 2. See also Bowers v. Hardwick. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Showed still lack of government support for the AIDS activists.
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"SILENCE = DEATH"
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Who or What? Gay artists in New York began plastering posters that featured a black background with a pink triangle and the words "SILENCE = DEATH". 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? If we neglect and if the government is silent about the AIDs epidemic, death would be eminent. Promoted the idea of getting voices heard, getting AIDs widely recognized, and having people be tested. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Shared Larry Kramer's idea to engage the gay community in activism, or silence = death. Worked with ACT UP in New York. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Publicized the movement, symbolic of the movement's fight to recognize AIDs to prevent further death.
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AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT-UP) (est. 1987)
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Who or What? ACT UP, the Aids Coalition to Unleash Power, "diverse, non-partisan group of individuals united in anger and committed to direct action to end the AIDs crisis." 300 New Yorkers founded the coalition after an angry speech by Larry Kramer. Sites in Houston, Los Angeles, New Orleans, Philadelphia, Seattle, SF and Boston. Eventually 50 chapters participated in ACT NOW movement protests. One demonstration at Wall Street ended with seventeen arrests. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Brought together people with diverse economic and political backgrounds. Included may artists who produced banners, buttons, fliers, photographs, t-shirts, posters, etc., including "SILENCE = DEATH." Criticized capitalism and homophobia, sexism, racism. Tended to be iberal. Hundreds of protests and demonstrations. Parades. Sit-ins, including at SF General Hospital to criticize lack of access to AIDS drugs. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Coalition brought many activists together to have a cohesive message and movement that the media could latch onto. Use of sit ins and other strategies found in other civil rights courses. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? See 3. United a group of people to protest with a stronger presence across the country. Criticized local and state governments, and federal laws. Utilized media. Interacted with hostility towards religion. Eventually included connections to abortion rights and women's rights activism
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Robert Mapplethorpe
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Who or What? Gay artist who took homoerotic photos. The National Endowment for the Arts had provided financial support to art museums that were exhibiting or had exhibited his photography and artwork by similar artists. Museums began cancelling his exhibitions, and protests occurred both to promote censorship and to defend Mapplethorpe's work. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Censorship Conservative anti-gay movement. 3) In what context has it been encountered? Setbacks on the gay and lesbian movement against censorship. Restrictions on sexual expression contributed to gay and lesbian counter-mobilizations. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? The Supreme Court ruled to uphold NEA's new indecency standard to prevent the funding of works that are thought to be indecent.
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Lawrence v. Texas(2003)
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Who or What? A white male and a black male had been arrested and jailed for consensual sex in a private apartment. The Supreme Court decision in Lawrence v. Texas overturned its decision in Bowers. Criminalization of private sex by two consenting adults violated constitutional privacy rights. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Litigation, legal interactions to decriminalize same-sex acts. 3) In what context has it been encountered? At the time, thirteen states still banned sodomy. Move from legislative action to court-based litigation. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? One of the movement's greatest successes.
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Romer v. Evans(1996)
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Who or What? Gay and lesbian advocates persuaded the U.S. Supreme Court to strike down a Colorado state constitutional amendment that invalidated all state and local laws against sexual orientation discrimination and prohibited all state and local government recognition of sexual orientation claims. This was ruled in Romer v. Evans; the amendment violated the Constitution's equal protection clause. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Legal interaction with government. (Litigation) 3) In what context has it been encountered? Sixteen states and D.C. have enacted comprehensive laws against discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender expression in employment, housing, and public accommodations. Fifteen additional states have less comprehensive laws. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? The decision was a relevant success in the movement.
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"don't ask, don't tell" (est. 1993)
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Who or What? President Clinton proposed an end to the ban on homosexuals in the U.S. military. Opposition led to the adoption of the "don't ask, don't tell" policy, which permitted lesbians, gays, and bisexuals to serve as long as they did not disclose their sexuality. In 2010, Congress authorized the termination of this practice and President Obama ordered it in 2011 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Pervasive discrimination by government. 3) In what context has it been encountered? It allowed homosexuals to serve in the military, but still led to 14,000 people to be discharged. They would no longer be questioned routinely about their sexual practices, however. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? The repeal was a relevant success in the movement
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Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) (est. 1996)
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Who or What? Passed by Congress and signed into law by President Clinton in 1996 Defines marriage as the union of one man and one woman, and denies federal recognition of same-sex marriages. Currently being challenged in courts; currently, same-sex couples are denied access to more than 1000 federal rights and benefits linked to marriage. 2) With what ideas is it/him/her associated? Marginalization of same-sex couples and rights Lack of support from government Legal interactions, litigation 3) In what context has it been encountered? Continued debates on civil liberties and attempts to fight for civil liberties through the law. 4) What is its/their significance to this course? Previous struggles and successes to obtain legal acknowledgement for civil liberties have led up to the current debate over DOMA. Continued use of litigation to support efforts to defend civil liberties and equality.
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Alcatraz occupation (1969-1971)
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On March 8, 1964, a small group of Sioux demonstrated by occupying the island for four hours. This initial occupation was mostly symbolic. In 1969, Adam Fortunate Eagle planned a symbolic occupation for November 20. On January 3, 1970, Yvonne Oakes, 13-year-old daughter of Annie and stepdaughter to Richard, fell to her death, prompting the Oakes family to leave the island. Left without power, fresh water, and in the face of diminishing public support and sympathy, the number of occupiers began to dwindle. The entire occupation lasted until June 1971, 19 months from when it started. Though fraught with controversy and forcibly ended, the Occupation is hailed by many as a success for having attained international attention for the situation of native peoples in the United States.
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Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)(est. 1824)
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est. 1824) - Known as the Great White Father, they were a governmental agency that would oversee reservations by "issuing their money, educating their children, relocating them from reservation to city, and determining the use of their land." Examples of corrupt acts included selling N.A. land off to businessmen at very low prices, relocating them to sparse land, taking away their water rights, not providing enough health benefits, placing figure heads in power of the reservations (i.e. Dick Wilson at Pine Ridge Reservation). For example, in 1964, N.A. were given 47 cents an acre for millions of acres. The individuals working for the BIA were known as "Uncle Tomohawks." The health conditions of reservations were horrid and the Bureau did nothing to fix it. Most of the people in charge and working for the BIA were white. The BIA would also fail to meet any of the legislative demands of N.A. This was seen during the "Longest Walk" where the participants were not given adequate housing and sustenance. During this walk they proposed an 11-point plan that was outright rejected. The SIGNGNIFICANCE, like the experience of many social minorities fighting for civil rights in the USA at the time, there was governmental initiatives attempting to quash any sort of rebellion/resistance. This was seen with the FBI and the Black Panther Movement, and many others.
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Red Power
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..Because of their exploitation of N.A. land and dignity by the BIA, Red Power spread like wildfire across tribes in the USA during the 1st half of the 1970's. This movement/ideology made N.A. more aware of their oppression and connectedness as an oppressed and exploited minority group, creating unity between them, which radicalized and militarized them. For example, this is seen in Minneapolis where bands of N.A. men would rally against police brutality towards N.A. This is similar to that of the Black Panther Movement and their Black Pride call, similarly, the call of Brown Power by the Chicano Movement. Although these had their differences, they had a very similar political outcry. This notion invigorated N.A. not only politically but also culturally. This was seen by demanding that Indian artifacts in museums be returned to them. Also, the Alcatraz occupation's claims of having a cultural center be built on the island.
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Ward Churchill
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He was involved with SDS and the Red Power Movement. In mid-70's, he attended a school called Sangamon State University that was "experimental" institution that radicalized its students towards social movements (this was also seen in the Black Movement). He stood against the war in Vietnam, a war he fought in. Involved, also in AIM. He was an all around leader in the N.A. community, which were few.
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American Indian Movement (AIM) (est. 1968)
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est. 1968) - Late 1960's - early 1970's. Founded by Denis Banks, Russell Means and others. Began in Minneapolis in response to police brutality. Formed to address issues concerning Native Americans in urban areas. This initiative came out of Red Power. Nation-wide initiative. Was both cultural and legal unlike Red Power that was primarily militant and cultural. AIM worked on both legal and political issues concerning Native Americans. AIMs presence in the Wounded Knee occupation, and the Longest Walk are good example of this.
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Dennis Banks
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He was an overall leader to the movement. He was involved in most of the formation of AIM. He led and participated in the Alcatraz occupation. He was present in the Wounded Knee occupation. In addition, he helped organize the Trail of Broken Treatise. He was a MLK of the Native American civil rights movement.
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Russell Means
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Working alongside Dennis Banks, Means helped start up AIM. He was also involved in Alcatraz Occupation, and NA Politics against Dick Wilson. He was also present in the Trail of Broken Treatise. He was a prominent figure in the Native American Movement.
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"Trail of Broken Treaties" (1972)
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1972) - It was a cross-country protest in the United States by American Indian and First Nations organizations that took place in the Autumn of 1972. It was designed to bring attention to American Indian issues, such as treaty rights, living standards, and inadequate housing. When they reached Washington DC, they proposed a 20-point plan that was rejected outright by the BIA. Unlike the March on Washington, the N.A. movement did not have the strength to have any legislation passed for them. They were ignored and forced back. The present organizations included: the American Indian Movement, the National Indian Brotherhood (a Canadian organization), the Native American Rights Fund, the National Indian Youth Council, and others. Here is a link of the doc: http://www.aimovement.org/ggc/trailofbrokentreaties.html
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Wounded Knee occupation (1973)
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1973) -Began 1973 when about 200 Oglala Lakota and followers of the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The protest followed the failure of an effort of the Ogala Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO) to impeach tribal president Richard Wilson, whom they accused of corruption and abuse of opponents. Additionally, protestors attacked the United States government's failure to fulfill treaties with Indian peoples and demanded the reopening of treaty negotiations. Oglala and AIM activists controlled the town for 71 days while the United States Marshals Service, Federal Bureau of Investigation agents and other law enforcement agencies cordoned off the area. One of the Marshals involved in the operation was Tommy Robinson, later a United States Representative from Arkansas.[citation needed] The activists chose the site of the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre for its symbolic value. Both sides were armed and shooting was frequent. A US Marshall was paralyzed from a gunshot wound early during the occupation, and later died from complications[citation needed]; a Cherokee and an Oglala Lakota were killed by shootings in April 1973. Ray Robinson, a civil rights activist who joined the protesters, disappeared during the events and is believed to have been murdered. Due to damage to the houses, the small community was not reoccupied until the 1990s. The occupation attracted wide media coverage, especially after the press accompanied two US Senators from South Dakota to Wounded Knee. The events electrified American Indians, who were inspired by the sight of their people standing in defiance of the government, which had so often failed them. Many Indian supporters traveled to Wounded Knee to join the protest. At the time there was widespread public sympathy for the goals of the occupation, as Americans were becoming more aware of longstanding issues of injustice related to American Indians. Afterward AIM leaders Dennis Banks and Russell Means were indicted on charges related to the events, but their 1974 case was dismissed by the federal court for prosecutorial misconduct, a decision upheld on appeal.
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Richard ("Dickie") Wilson
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President of Pine Ridge Reservation. He was a corrupt leader, working hand-in-hand with the BIA. He would sell the land of the reservation to companies keeping the profits for himself and his family. He kept power by establishing a mercenary group called the GOONs and having a small police force given to him by the BIA. The SIGNIFICANCE of Wilson's reign is one of horror. A man, despite the obviousness of his corruption remained in power even under the power of the law. This man was above the law given whom he sold his soul to and exploited the land of his people. This shows the power of the federal government to do as they please whether it concerns legality or not.
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Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOONs)(est. 1973)
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est. 1973) - Funded by Dick Wilson through the BIA. They were used at Pine Ridge Indian Reservation to suppress any political involvement. They were used to squash any revolt.
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Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO) (est. 1973)
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est. 1973) - During the Wounded Knee occupation, they failed at impeaching Richard Wilson. It was coalition of AIM activists and residents of the Pine Ridge Reservation that were fed up with the conditions on the reservation and with Wilson's corruption and exploitation of their land. "Younger Oglala Lakota activists pushed the occupation forward. These activists, including Ellen Moves Camp, formed the Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO). They hated tribal chairman Dick Wilson, because they believed he did not listen to his people. OSCRO supported the American Indian Movement and invited the group to Wounded Knee."
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Ellen Moves Camp
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She was an Oglala Lakota elder. Major figure in the Wounded Knee occupation as one of the organizers. She was a mediator. Helped establish a cease-fire.
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Leonard Peltier
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in the 1975, (falsely) convicted of killing two BIA agents. It was an unfair trail.
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Robert ("Bob") Robideau
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Charged with the shooting of two BIA agents. He was later acquitted during the Wounded Knee Incident.
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"Longest Walk" (1978)
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The Longest Walk" (1978) was an AIM-led spiritual walk across the country to support tribal sovereignty and bring attention to 11 pieces of anti-Indian legislation; AIM believed that the proposed legislation would have abrogated Indian Treaties, quantified and limited water rights, etc. The first walk began on February 11, 1978 with a ceremony on Alcatraz Island, where a Sacred Pipe was loaded with tobacco. The Pipe was carried the entire distance. This 3,200-mile (5,100 km) Walk's purpose was to educate people about the US government's continuing threat to Tribal Sovereignty; it rallied thousands representing many Indian Nations throughout the United States and Canada. Traditional spiritual leaders from many tribes participated, leading traditional ceremonies. International spiritual leaders, primarily from Japan, also supported the Walk.On July 15, 1978, "The Longest Walk" entered Washington D.C. with several thousand Indians and a number of non-Indian supporters. The traditional elders led them to the Washington Monument, where the Pipe carried across the country was smoked. Over the following week, they held rallies at various sites to address issues: the 11 pieces of legislation, American Indian political prisoners, forced relocation at Big Mountain, the Navajo Nation, etc. Non-Indian supporters included the American boxer Muhammad Ali, US Senator Ted Kennedy and the actor Marlon Brando. The US Congress voted against a proposed bill to abrogate treaties with Indian Nations. During the week after the activists arrived, Congress passed the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, which allowed them the use of peyote in worship. President Jimmy Carter refused to meet with representatives of The Longest Walk.
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Indian Health Service (IHS) (est. 1955)
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est. 1955) - IHS was established in 1955 to take over health care of American Indian and Alaska Natives from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to the Public Health Service (PHS) in hopes of improving the healthcare of Native Americans living on Reservations. The provision of health services to members of federally recognized tribes grew out of the special government-to-government relationship between the federal government and Indian tribes. This relationship, established in 1787, is based on Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, and has been given form and substance by numerous treaties, laws, Supreme Court decisions, and Executive Orders.
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Relf v. Weinberger(1974)
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case for women's sterilization. However, "The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit later dismissed the claim as moot when the Department of Health and Welfare issued new regulations on the use of sterilization in federally funded programs." In other words, the legal case was dropped because the Department of Health changed its ways, so there was no need to go on with the case, essentially.
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Indian Health Care Improvement Act (IHCIA) (1976)
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1976) - Congress passes the $1.6-billion Indian Health Care Improvement Act. Its provisions authorize the Indian Health Service to bill Medicare and Medicaid for services rendered to qualifying beneficiaries. It also proposes the need for tribal-specific health plans to investigate Native perceptions of health problems and culturally acceptable solutions.
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Madrigal v. Quilligan (1978)
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1978) - was a federal class action lawsuit from Los Angeles County, California involving sterilization of Latina women without informed consent, or through coercion. The judge ruled in favor of the doctors, but the case led to better informed consent for patients, especially those who are not native English speakers.
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Aztlán
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The name Aztlán was first taken up by a group of Chicano independence activists led by Oscar Zeta Acosta during the Chicano movement of the 1960s and 1970s. They mistakenly used the name Aztlán to refer to the lands of Northern Mexico that were sold to the United States as a result of the Mexican-American War. Groups who have used the name Aztlán in this manner include Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, MEChA (Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán, "Chicano Student Movement of Aztlán"), and the Nation of Aztlán (NOA).
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Mexican American Student Confederation (MASC) (est. 1967)
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est. 1967) El Plan de Santa Barbara (EPSB) (1969) - MEChA was created in Santa Barbara in April of 1969, during the self-motivated convention of young Chicano students who came from throughout California to meet at the University of California in that city, resulting in the production of, amongst other accomplishments, El Plan de Santa Barbara. Many of the Santa Barbara attendees had previously been at the Crusade for Justice convention in Denver, Colorado, in March of 1969 where Alurista's poem, "El Plan Espiritual de Aztlan," became the focal point and philosophical statement proclaiming Chicanos to be part of a native, "bronze nation," native to the Americas with roots in mythical Aztlan. During the conference in Santa Barbara, one of the student workshops was made responsible for creating a new identity which all Chicano students groups in California could unite under, most being known then as United Mexican American Students (UMAS) in Southern California and the Mexican American Student Confederation (MASC) in northern California. The name "MECHA" was created by this workshop, purposely using the Spanish language for this new all-inclusive Chicano group, the name being Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlan, which in English means "Chicano Student Movement of Aztlan." The name was a declaration that Chicanos are native to these United States, through our cultural motherland of Aztlan, believed to have been somewhere in the modern U.S. southwest, yet not definitively and conclusively confirmed.MEChA chapters first took root on California college campuses and then expanded to high schools and schools in other states. It soon became one of the primary Mexican-American organizations, hosting functions, developing community leaders, and politically pressuring educational institutions. MEChA was fundamental in the adoption of Chicano Studies programs and departments in academia.
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First National Chicana Conference (1971)
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United Farm Workers of America (UFW) (est. 1966)
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This is a Labor Union organized and headed by Cesar Chavez (along with other actors) in 1966. Conditions for migrant workers were dire and often degrading in the fields of California and the American South West. Workers were treated unjustly, denied equal pay, and placed in horrible living conditions. This was a movement to try to change that. To amplify the movement and garner more support for farmers, Cesar consolidates his earlier organization started in 1962 (National Farm Workers Association) and the Filipino farm workers that had been organizing around the same time. The only way Mexican Migrant workers and other minority workers were going to be taken seriously was through the merging of this Union. Once the Labor union consolidates, it is able to successfully barter with employers for wages and better working conditions. It is important to our course because this was no easy fight by any means. Cesar Chavez goes into hunger strikes to try to get media coverage on the movement and successfully attracts the media, his hunger strike began late February 1968, sustained it for several weeks. Along with trying to get the media to cover their movement, he was also protesting violent crackdowns by federal and local police. This is a significant movement in the struggle for Mexican-American civil rights, the UFA are still very active today and continue to address the working conditions of workers.
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Community Service Organization (CSO) (est. 1947)
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This organization was a grassroots movement led by migrant workers, poor Latinos and immigrants disenfranchised in the political climate for community self-empowerment. This was an organization early in it's time that aimed at addressing the concerns of Latino minorities way before the Chicano movement went underway in the late 1960's. Think of this as a "first-generation" Chicano movement. For generations Latinos were discriminated against, payed lower wages and kept from participating in the political establishment. This organization encouraged these people to demand their rights as equal citizens, it also trained the future generation of Latinos to carry forward the cause. It famously trained BOTH Dolores Huerta and Cesar Chavez as community organizers. It functioned a lot of like the NAACP to a degree. Their goal was to get the poor communities of Latinos involved, voter registrations were a trademark of this organization. They worked from a top down approach representing and taking on legal cases that would address the needs of Mex Americans. This is particularly important to our course because it is noted as being one of the first organizations promoting the rights and advancement of Mexican-Americans and Latinos.
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La Causa
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Chavez starts La Causa under the auspices of the Union Farm Workers. It becomes a rallying cry. It translates into "The Cause." It was a coop, published a newspaper, set up a migrant worker credit union. It helped prepare for a nationwide strike. There were many bitter and violent fights between the grape growers and the workers; Chavez and many union people were jailed in the struggle. Some agreements were eventually made between the farm workers union and the growers. In order to force growers to further improve farm worker conditions, Chavez organized a nation-wide grape boycott, following a lettuce boycott. Chaves was heavily influenced by King and Ghandi. This is a non-violent movement. In addition to adopting the same type of tactics of non-violence. He invited representatives from black churches. SNCC and CORE were there to support and help propel the movement. This was a poor movement that could not lose their work and pay. Students at Berkeley, Stanford, and SF State supported the strikes. This is the prelude to the what would later become the United Farm Workers of America which would led by Cesar Chavez. La Causa "The Cause" is important because after long years of discrimination and low paid wages to Mexican Migrants working in the fields, this would be a rallying cry to father as many farmers as possible and "organize" them for better wages. This is also where we start seeing Chavez's famous motto "Si Se Puede" Yes It can be Done
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Dolores Huerta
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A long time activist in the movement for migrant worker's rights, Dolores Huerta was trained as an organizer in the Community Service Organization before she starts her own chapter in Stockton. Along with Cesar Chavez, Dolores Huerta is an important figure in the development of the National Farm Workers association, she is the co-founder. She is often considered to be a "behind-the-scenes" activist because we often attribute the whole NFW movement to be led by Chavez, but in reality, Huerta had a major play in the success of this. She was a key figure in the organized Boycott of Grapes which helps pave wave for an agreement between workers and employers for decent wages and living conditions in 1970. Professor Cardyn briefly talked about her in connection to other past women activist leaders, I would recommend to focus on this ID carefully around the struggle for Mex-American rights. Considering that she might ask a question about the role of women in high profile Civil Rights organizations, Huerta is a perfect example to include in an essay.
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David Sanchez
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Founder aka "Prime Minister" of the Brown Berets in the late 1960's. This is part of the general Chicano Movement for "Brown Consciousness" and self-identity. It is important to note that Sanchez replicated the values and attitude of the Black Panther Party into his newly founded Brown Berets. He was an activist and spokesperson of the group. The readings don't really mention him as much other than he was the founder of the Brown Berets. Include this ID in relation with the Brown Berets.
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Brown Berets (est. 1967)
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Part of the series of movements at the time that advocated "Third World Liberation," self-identity and self-determination. The Brown Berets are a left-leaning (Marxist in ideology, socialist in practice) militant group that resembled Black Panthers in many respects. As mentioned before, David Sanchez finds the Brown Berets. They form to serve the community by providing "security" to minority neighborhoods that constantly faced racial profiling by inner-city police and discrimination. The Brown Berets also came to be known for their direct action against police brutality, often staging protests and fighting with the police. The Berets were there to protect the people, often arming themselves with weapons. In similar fashion to the Panthers, the Berets ran free-clinics and free-breakfast programs in lower impoverished neighborhoods, they also published a newspaper "La Causa" (similar to Cesar Chaves') for the community. This is important to our course because we see an overlapping of radical militant movements between the races. Blacks and Browns in this time had similar goals and advocated to their communities the need for self-determination and community empowerment, this is a prime example of how their goals were pretty much the same, but with a different set of ideologies along the racial and ethnic lines.
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Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO) (est. 1967)
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MAYO is founded in San Antonio Texas by 5 students, one of them including Jose Gutierrez, 1967. This is an organization aimed at addressing the injustices and living conditions of the Latino population of San Antonio. Remember that even though those living in Urban Communities were not nearly as poor as migrant workers of rural area, they were still living in bad conditions. In a similar fashion to the earlier Community Service Organization, they were all about community activism. They borrowed some of the tactics used by past organizations to mobilize Latinos on the grassroots level and used Voter registrations as their main tool. This is significant to our course because during this time we see MAYO staging the earliest school walkouts in Texas to protest the educational disparity in their school districts and the inequality of resources. These school walkouts are important because they help create a dialogue between the school districts and activists. More information about their own culture is one of the demands that they made. Brown Power! takes off. Why would Mexican Americans be inclined to oppose the general earlier Civil Rights groups? There was a generational divide. There was a gap between the have and have nots. Similarly, the older generation had grown up under the notion that being educated was the way to assimilate, MAYO brought something different to the movement.
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Chicano Youth Liberation Conference (1969)
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The Chicano Youth Liberation Conference (1969) is organized by Rodrigo "Corky" Gonzales in Denver Colorado (a platform for Chicano Activism). Chicano activists and leaders meet for the discussion of Mexican-American equal rights and self-determination. Plan de Aztlan is presented here. It calls for Brown Pride and a sense of Nationalism. Remember the professor said that conferences are important because there is usually a consensus on how to approach a problem of the time, those attending the conference come to agreement on how to approach a solution to self-empowerment, demand to be treated cordially and as part of the general American society. What is important and significant this conference is that the The Student Chicano movement (MECHA) is born shortly from this conference. Mecha is still very active today, it aims at teaching cultural history to their members instilling a sense of national identity in the US. Formed on the conference and chartered at the a conference for Chicano education at UC Santa Barbara, this conference helps build up a Chicano Studies movement. To read a full outline of what the conference was about you can find it on on Takin' it to the Streets by Bloom and Breines.
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First National Chicano Boycott(1969)
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José Angel Gutiérrez
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A key Chicano activist and academic, he was involved in the Civil Rights movement since he was a college student. Jose is a key figure in being one of the founders of both MAYO and La Raza Unida Party in the early 1970's. This short identification should be treated in relation to either La Raza Unida party or MAYO, both of which he was a part of.
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Del Rio Mexican American Manifesto (1969)
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It is called "Del Rio" because it was issued in Texas, Del Rio. Relate this identification with MAYO. In 1969 MAYO presents this manifesto to protest discrimination, racism and injustice against Latinos, and firmly affirm a Mexican American cultural identity. It is significant to our course because it is here that MAYO lays out a clear set of objectives that they are mobilizing for while addressing the conditions of Mex Americans.
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La Raza Unida (est. 1970)
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This is primarily a Mexican-American third party movement that supported candidates for elective office in Texas, California, and other areas of the Southwest. This was organized as a more organized political movement that formally endorsed candidates running for office that supported the advancement of Mex American in predominantly Latino barrios. at the first and only national MAYO meeting, Chicano activists had endorsed the formation of a third party, an idea that Jose Gutiérrez had proposed in establishing MAYO. This is significant to our course because instead of resorting to more militant tactics of achieving equality, RUP sought to integrate into the political climate to change the dire conditions of Latinos in this country and promote the advancement of Latinos. It is a political party in mainstream politics.
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Young Lords Party (est. 1969)
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Founded as the Young Lords in Chicago by "Cha Cha" Jimenez. This is a party that distinguishes itself from the general Chicano/Mexican American movements of the time. Keep in mind that minorities in the East Coast, especially in the ethnic enclaves of NYC and other major urban cities also experienced discrimination and unjust treatment, so a party like this would later address all those issues. They replicated the Black Panthers in their tactics of community empowerment and admired the Brown Berets as Latinos. They also provided community free-clinics and free breakfast programs. This party is started first in Chicago as a "gang" which then turns into community party, it is made up of mostly by the minority communities of the Puerto Rican descent. They are considered to be a Nationalist group, and they were definitely militant. They move on to become a national party with chapters opening all over the states, coast to coast. The Young Lords Party is important to the discussion of the Feminist Chicana movement. Now collectively.
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National Chicano Moratorium (est. 1968)
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The Chicano Moratorium was a movement of Chicano activists that organized anti-Vietnam War demonstrations and protest activities in Mexican American communities throughout the Southwest and elsewhere from November 1969 through August 1971. Remember the professor mentioned that at the time of these events, the media tended overshadow protests (like Cesar Chavez's Labor Union disputes and National Boycotts)? The Moratorium sought to organize major protests to garner the attention of the media while also addressing the injustices Chicanos faced in the United States, this group focused on the high participation rate of minorities in Vietnam. The most notable protest to our course was during a major protest against the high number of minority casualties during the Vietnam War in which a Los Angeles Times journalist and activist Ruben Salazar was killed after the police fired a gas canister into the cafe he was sitting in crushing his skull and killing him.
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Chicano Liberation Front(CLF) (est. 1971)2
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Considered to be a terrorist organization by federal authorities. Amid the turbulent times of protests by several Chicano organizations to attain equal rights for Mex Americans, the CLF took a different approach to their tactics. Remember that there was a general split among the organizations, while MAYO introduced ways to get people involved in the general political climate, the CLF did it through more militant means. They are responsible for the bombing of schools and post offices in East Los Angeles.
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Chicano Manifesto (1971)
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This is an important piece by Armando Rendon, read this in Bloom and Breines. It could be a possible first source essay. Public declarations by African Americans of race pride and ethnic heritage prompted members of other minority groups to reassess their own place and backgrounds This was an especially compelling discussion among American Latinos, who had lived in a world that offered contradictory messages about their race and culture. Across the country from neighborhoods in New York to communities in Texas and barrios in California this discussion exploded. This piece summarizes those feelings and tries to provide to its readers a sense of cultural identity. It is a short read and it can't be explained simply without understanding the context of this short essay.
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Chicanismo
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..It was a cultural movement that begun in the 1960's This was a sense of identity developed within the Mexican American factions for equality. It was adopted by many of the organizations, especially the more militant ones to show pride of their roots while still retaining their identity in the Nation. Some describe it as a cosmological vision of the "Chicano," who was neither Indian nor European, neither Mexican nor American, but a combination of all the conflicting identities.The term is important because it helps consolidate a sense of identity between the Chicano organizations even though they often differed in strategy and tactics for advancing equal rights for Latinos. The four major themes of Chicanismo are generally considered to be: (1) the power of the earth and labor upon it; (2) political transformation through collective effort; (3) familial ties extending back into Mesoamerican history and (4) imagination as reflected in the visual arts.
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El Plan de Aztlán (EPA) (1969)
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This is a manifesto advocating for Chicano cultural identity and self determination. A synopsis of El Plan stipulates: 1) We are Chicanas and Chicanos of Aztlán reclaiming the land of our birth (Chicana/Chicano Nation); 2) Aztlán belongs to indigenous people, who are sovereign and not subject to a foreign culture; 3) We are a union of free pueblos forming a bronze (Chicana/Chicano) Nation; 4) Chicano nationalism, as the key to mobilization and organization, is the common denominator to bring consensus to the Chicana/Chicano Movement; 5) Cultural values strengthen our identity as La Familia de La Raza; and 6) EPA, as a basic plan of Chicana/Chicano liberation, sought the formation of an independent national political party that would represent the sentiments of the Chicana/Chicano community. This plan served as the historical foundation for the establishment of a viable Chican@ and are therefore fundamental to the MEChA Philosophy.
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La Raza
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La Raza "The Race" is a romanticized term to advance the struggle of Mexican Americans and Latinos in the country. This of this under the auspices of all the Chicano/a movements that we have discussed so far. The Raza is a sense of national identity. It is romanticized by many, highly influential to many of the organizations that sought to attain rights for Latinos in this country. It is not necessary to know this, but it was highly influenced by Mexico's Secretary of Education's Jose Vasconcelos' "La Raza Cosmica" the Cosmic Race. You can relate this ID to any of the other ID's within the Mexican American fight for equality.
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Conferencia de Mujeres por La Raza (1971)
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Mujeres Por La Raza was the women's caucus within the Raza Unida Party, which represented the merging of Chicano nationalism and Chicana feminism and advanced the political interests of Chicanas during the Chicano movement. Its development corresponded with the rise of the Chicana feminist movement in Texas. The conference was held in Spanish, it also battled racism and classism among Anglo women
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Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional (CFMN) (est. 1970)
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This is a Mexican American organization geared towards the political and economic empowerment of Hispanic women, particularly Chicanas, in the United States. a group of women expressed their worries about issues that were important to Chicanas. They felt, however, that the conference participants were more worried about other issues, such as immigration, rather than solving problems that affected women. As a consequence, other women that were not part of that original group of women also joined them in their criticisms. Many women at the 1970 National Chicano Issues Conference felt that this conference was geared towards solving problems that were more common to, and affected directly, men, instead of their own problems. This led the women to form the Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional. Other issues they sought to address was Sterilization: Race gender, location, class, by class the notion encompasses. How much women use social programs?. None of the women in the readings were using public services. It was also important to discuss how a Chicana could reconcile their old world traditions, like the religious nature and machismo of Mexican culture with the new traditions of the US.
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Women's Caucus [of the Young Lords Party](est. c.1971)
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The Women's Caucus of the Young Lord Party was an all female contingency within the party with the goal of women's liberation. Feminist in nature, this caucus convened together to discuss the role of women in the party and drafted their demands from the party and the general society. They are key to the developing ideology of the Party. Most noted is a pamphlet released by the Party on the "Party's Position on Women" in which they call for the equality of women while condemning men's "double standard," machismo (prevalent in Hispanic culture), and sexual Fascism. It is important to think of this ID as part of the general Young Lord Party by including the important role women played in the decision making of the party. Remember that the YLP intermediately is active in the general Chicano movements of the West coast and contemporary social activism. They adopted similar militant doctrines (like they way they dressed) and their women were fully conscious of the struggle for their own liberation rights. This caucus is one example of a movement within the umbrella movement for equality, in this case based on gender.
