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Research development has been stimulated by social pressures...

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to improve the lives of children.

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Information about child development is

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interdisciplinary

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Domains of development

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physical, cognitive, emotional, and social

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Periods of development

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how to divide the flow of time into sensible, manageable parts

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Infancy and toddlerhood

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from birth - 2 years old this period brings dramatic changes in the body and brain that support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities. beginnings of language and first intimate ties to others

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Early childhood

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2-6 years - body becomes leaner and longer, motor skills are refined and children become more self controlled and self sufficient, make believe, thought and language expand, sense of mortality, children establish first ties with peers

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Middle childhood

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6-11 years - master new responsibilities that increasingly resemble those they will perform as adults. improved athletic ability. participation in organized games with rules; logical thought process. mastery of fundamental reading, writing, math, etc.

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Adolescence:

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from 11-18 years - transition to adulthood, puberty, thought becomes complex and abstract, and idealistic, and schooling is directed toward preparation for higher education.

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theory

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orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior

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continuous

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a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with

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discontinuous

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a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times

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contexts

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unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change

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nature

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we mean the hereditary information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception

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Nurture

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complex forces of the physical and social world

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the reformation

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16th century puritan belief viewed children as stubborn and evil.

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John Locke

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(behaviorist) - tabula rosa - development in continuous, adult like behavior is gradually built up through warm, consistent teachings of parents (nurture)

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

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- noble savages, naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong - 4 stages infancy, childhood, late childhood, and adolescence

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Darwin

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forefather of scientific child study. - development of human growth followed the same general plan as the evolution of human species.

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G. Stanley Hall

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child study movement.

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The normative period

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in which measures of behavior are take non large numbers of individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development.

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Alfred Binet

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theory of intelligence, capturing complexity of children's thinking. Intelligence as good judgement, planning. Standford Binet intelligence scale

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John Watson

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inspired by Pavlov's study of animal learning (classical conditioning)

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B.F. Skinner

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operant conditioning - frequency of behavior can be increased by reinforcer

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Bandura

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social learning theory

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Information processing

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from the time information is presented to the sense at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output information is coded, transformed, and organized

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Developmental cognition neuroscience

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psych, bio, neuro, medicine, to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child's cognitive processing and behavior patterns.

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Ethology

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is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history

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imprinting

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- observed behavior patterns that promote survival - takes place during early, restricted period of development

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Applied behavior analysis

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consists of observations of relationships between behavior and environmental events, followed by systematic changes in those events based on procedures of conditioning and modeling. the goal is to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses .

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Cognitive developmental theory

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children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world

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Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

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focuses on how culture - the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a group - is transmitted to the next generation.

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Bronfenbrenner

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Ecological systems theory - microsystem - mesosystem - exosystem - macrosystem - chronosystem

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microsystem

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Innermost level of the environment. consists of actives and interaction patterns in the child's IMMEDIATE surroundings.

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mesosystem

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The second level, encompasses connections between the microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood, and child care center.

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Exosystem

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consists of social settings that do not contain children but that nevertheless affect children's experiences in immediate settings. workplaces, their religious institutions, community.

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Macrosystem

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the outermost level, consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources.

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Chronosystem

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life changes can be imposed on the child. Alternatively, they can arise from within the child, since as children get older why select, modify, and create many of their own settings and experiences.

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DNA

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substance of which genes and chromosomes are made

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Genes

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Segments of DNA located along the chromosomes

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Chromosomes

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store and transmit genetic information

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Meiosis

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Process of cell division used to crate gametes

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Alleles inherited from the parents are either dominant or recessive, determining:

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-Physical traits -Disabilities and diseases

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X-linked inheritance

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- A harmful allele is carried on the x chromosome - males are more likely to be affected

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Mutation

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- sudden, permanent change in a DNA segment - can be caused by hazardous environment agents

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Phenotypes

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Directly observable characteristics

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Genotype

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the complex blend of genetic information that determines our species and influences all our unique characteristics

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Gametes

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sex cells, the sperm or ovum they contain 23 chromosomes

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Meiosis process

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Gametes are formed by this process, which halves the number of chromosomes normally present in body cells

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autosomes

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22 of the 23 pairs of chromosomes are matching pairs

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chromosomes

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23rd pair consists of sex chromosomes

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What's the impact of after-school programs and clubs?

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1. increased self-confidence for low SES kids 2. Better school achievement

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what is the importance of cultural context?

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it shapes every aspect of our lives

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Secular trends

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changes in body size from one generation to the next

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wha do IQ test measure

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current tests provide an overall score that represents general intelligence, with separate scores messaging specific mental abilities. - current gets don't measure all aspects of intelligence

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Standford-binet

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an intelligence test for ages 2 to adulthood

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Wechsler intelligence scale for children-IV

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ages 6-16 an intelligence test.

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Sternberg's triatchic theory of successful intelligence

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- analytical intelligence - creative intelligence - practical intelligence

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information processing perspective

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- neo-piagetian theorists argue that the development of operational thinking can be best understood in terms of expansion of information processing capacity rather than a sudden shift to a new stage

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information processing executive functions:

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- working memory - attention

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what are the characteristics of executive function?

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- planning - strategic thinking - self- monitoring

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short term memory

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ability to remember and process informaiton - holds small amount of info then goes away in 10-15 seconds unless you make an effort to retain it

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what happens to attention during Middle childhood

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it becomes more - selective - flexible - planful

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cognitive self-regulation

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continous monitoring progress toward a goal - checking outcomes - redirecting unsuccessful efforts

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Sequence of typical reading development

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ages 2-5 - "pretends" to read and write - prints own name and other words

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reading development 5-6 years

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- recognizes familiar written words - decodes simple, one-syllable word - retells story main events in sequence

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reading development 6-7 years

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decodes regularly spelled one-syllable words - recognized some irregularly spelled words

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reading development 7-8

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reads grade level stories more fluently, while also comprehending - decodes multi-syllable words and more irregularly spelled words

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what influences self-concept

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- cognitive development - support - perspective taking - culture

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in what ways to we evaluate ourselves?

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- academic competence - social competence - physical/athletic competence - physical appearance

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what influences self-esteem

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- culture - gender stereotypes - parenting - achievement-related attributions

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self compassion

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- mindfulness - self kindness - connectedness

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mindfulness

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self-compassion involves recognizing when we're stressed or struggling without being judgmental or over-reacting

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self-kindness

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- being supportive and understanding towards ourselves when we're having a hard time, rather than being harshly self critical

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connectedness

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remembering that everyone makes mistakes and experiences difficulties at time.

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Growth mindset

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belief that potential is undefined and malleable with work and experience

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Fixed mindset

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belief that potential is an entity. an internal trait that cannot be developed - learned helplessness - task orientation

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malocclusion

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a condition in which the upper and lower teeth do not meet properly. caused by thumb sucking after permanent teeth erupt.

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myopia

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or nearsightedness and is also one of the few health conditions that increase with SES due to tablets, computers, phones, etc.

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Ottis media

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middle ear infection. prevents fluid and bacteria from traveling so easily from the mouth to the ear.

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phonics approach

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the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. only after mastering these skills should the get complex reading material.

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whole language approach

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argued that from the beginning, children should be exposed to text in its complete form, stories, poems, letters, posters, and lists. so that they can appreciate the communicative function of written language.

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theory of multiple intelligence

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defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities.

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divergent thinking

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the generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or a problem.

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Convergent thinking

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largely contrasts with divergent thinking, which involves driving at a single correct answer and is emphasized on intelligence tests.

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Dr. Manning believes that children who are high or low in a characteristic, such as sociability, will remain so at later ages. Dr. Manning emphasizes

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stability

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Charles Darwin's theories prompted other researchers to make careful observations of all aspects of children's behavior. Out of these first attempts to document an idea about development, ______ was born.

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Scientific child study

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G stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell launched the normative approach, in which

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measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals.

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Unlike Freud, Erikson pointed out that

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development extends beyond adolescence, throughout the lifespan

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_____ believe that directly observable events are the appropriate focus of study.

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Behaviorists

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In his social-cognitive theory, Albert Bandura believed that from watching other engage in self-praise and self-blame and through feedback about the worth of their own actions, children develop

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a sense of self-efficacy

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The design of digital computers that use mathematically specified steps to solve problems inspired the ______ perspective.

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information-processing

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The new area of research is called evolutionary developmental psychology seeks understand

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the adaptive value of species-wide competencies as they change with age

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Lev Vygotsky believed that ______ is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture.

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social interaction

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In Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, the microsystem consists of

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activities and interaction patterns in the child's immediate surroundings

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Family Chaos

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contributes to children's behavior problems

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In a correlational design, researchers

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make no effort to alter participant's experiences

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Longitudinal studies permit investigators to

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examine relationships between early and later events and behaviors

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In a(n) ________ design, the researcher presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions

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microgenetic

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which of the following helps explain why humans, with far fewer genes than scientists once thought, develop into such complex beings?

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the proteins human genes make are far more numerous than those simpler species

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Incomplete dominance is a pattern of inheritance resulting in

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the expression of both paired alleles, yielding a combined trait intermediate between the two

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In many Western countries, including the United States, Canada, and European nations. the proportion of male births has declined in recent decades. some researchers attribute the trend to

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stress-related increases in spontaneous abortions, especially of male fetuses

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In somatic mutation,

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normal body cells mutate, affecting development at any time of life

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Mr. and Mrs. Garver both have a family history of psychological disorders. To estimate the likelihood that they will have a child with a psychological disorder, a genetic counselor will prepare a

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pedigree

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In vitro fertilization often leads to

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multiple fetuses, with higher risks of low birth weight and major birth defects.

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By Middle Childhood, international adoptees who were adopted in infancy

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have metal test scores resembling those other nonbiological siblings and school classmates

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Effective coparenting exists when

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mothers and father mutually support each other's parenting behavior

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Which of the following is an example of an indirect influence on child development?

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a postive martial relationship

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Which of the following American children is the likely to live in poverty?

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Anthony, who is African American

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Compared with nuclear-family households, African American extended family arrangements

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place more emphasis on cooperation and on moral and religious values

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U.S. public policies safeguarding children and youths

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have lagged behind policies in other developed nations

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Emily and Paige are swimmers. They enroll their children in swimming classes. This is an example of

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passive gene-environment correlation

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Which of the following is a specific mechanism through which environment can alter gene expression

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methylation

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In a study involving several hundred mothers and their children, 5-year olds with both prenatal nicotine exposure and the DD genotype obtained ________ scores than all other groups.

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Substantially higher impulsivity and overactivity

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Maya's grandmother is very short, and her mother is slightly taller. at age 12, maya is already taller than both of them. this is an example of a(n)

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secular trend

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Low SES children have especially high levels of _________, with about 30 percent untreated

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tooth decay

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Which of the following changes occurs in the brain during middle childhood and adolescence?

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the weight of the brain increases by only 10%

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Which of the following children has an elevated risk for later overweight and obesity?

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Lulia, who was born underweight because her mother smoked during pregnancy

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According to a study of school-age children from economically disadvantaged families, the number of stressors in children's lives

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strongly predicts impaired self-regulation and gain in BMI

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Your neighbor is concerned about the health of her 8 year old daughter, who is obese, and wants to help her lose weight. Which of the following would be the most effective treatment?

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implement a family based intervention that focuses on changing eating and exercise behaviors.

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Myopia

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is one of the few health conditions to increase with SES

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Children who ______ are particularly susceptible to injury in middle childhood

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are highly active and impulsive

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Which of the following statements about school-age children's understanding of health information is true?

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Much health information given to children is contradicted by other sources, such as television advertising.

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which of the following statements about athletic performance of school-age boys and girls is true?

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girls believe it is unjust that coaches favor boys, giving them an advantage in sports

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Middle Childhood is a crucial time to encourage girls' participation in sports because during this period, children

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start to discover what the are good at.

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In low SES communities in industrialized nations,

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children's participation in child-organized sports and games remains common

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as a result of parental concern about neighborhood safety

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children spend less time in spontaneous play and more in adult-oraganized sports

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Rough-and-tumble play in middle childhood

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provides a safe context for children to assess the strength of peers.

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Which of the following is true about physical education of the United States

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during a typical week, nearly half of elementary school children do not have any physical education.

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Which of the following statements about education of gifted children is true?

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when parens and teachers push them too hard, they may decide not to pursue their gift

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Which of the following is true about the learning advantages of screen media in middle childhood?

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adventure games promote strategic thinking , planning, problem solving, and imagination.

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When teachers emphasize competition and publicly compare children,

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children tend to adopt teachers' positive and negative views and start to live up to them

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Which of the following predicts higher student achievement?

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maintaining small classes from kindergarten through third grade

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Compared to monolinguals, bilinguals

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show greater activity in the prefrontal cortex during linguistic tasks.

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School-aged children's ability to comprehend subtle metaphors and to appreciate riddles and puns largely depend on

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understanding words' double meanings.

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Tyler pitches for his school's baseball team. After hearing rumors that his English teacher thinks all athletes are poor students, Tyler feels anxious about his performance in English class. Tyler is experiencing

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Stereotype threat.

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According to Flynn effect, the amount of increase in IQ from one generation to the next depends on

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the extend of societal modernization

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According to Sternberg, _______ intelligence consists of the information-processing components that underlie all intelligent acts.

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Analytical

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Mr. Bernalilio is about to administer the WISC-IV to a child to just immigrated from Mexico. Because of greater possibility of cultural bias, he should be cautious about interpreting the ______ score.

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verbal reasoning.

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Throughout elementary and secondary school, cognitive self-regulation

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predicts academic success.

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Which of the following statements about attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is true?

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ADHD runs in families and is highly heritable

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When asked to sort cards with pictures that vary in both color and shape, children age 5 and older

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reality switch their basis of sorting from color to shape when asked to do so.

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One limitation of concrete operational thinking is that

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children's mental operations work poorly with abstract ideas.

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Around age 9, children are able to

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give clear, well-oganized instructions for getting from one place to another by using a "mental walk" strategy.

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