Ethics- Test 1
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Ethics...
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a way of living life; a systematic, critical study of morals
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Moral...
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customs or standards about right and wrong
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\"Moral philosophy/theology\"
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Term used by Roman Catholics instead of ethics
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Ethics shifts...
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customary morality to reflective morality
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customary morality
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uncritically accept a moral code (inherited) and strong moral convictions, but unable to support the why
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reflective morality
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can defend their morals, are open to opposing views and are willing to change their minds; critically engaging his/her own moral standards
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Christian ethics
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branch of philosophy (ethics is not exclusively christian, predates christianity by a century-Plato and Aristotle); cannot define the christian ethic because there is not one single Christian position on moral issues
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Descriptive ethics/scientific ethics
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scientific study of morality; concerned with what people actually do, not what they should do; describes the behavior rather than prescribing it
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purpose of descriptive ethics/scientific ethics
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assess what people actually do
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Social sciences study morality through...
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factual investigation of moral behavior; studies conducted through observation or surveys and reported in statistics
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Prescriptive ethics
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\"Philosophical study of morality\" Not only what people actually do, but also what they should do; prescribes instead of only describing; tells people how they should behave
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Prescriptive ethics makes judgments...
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about acceptable and unacceptable behavior (class focus)
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2 types of prescriptive ethics
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1. analytical ethics/metaethics: investigates the meaning of specific ethical terms; clear about terms 2. normative ethics: deals with formulation of morals or norms of living; forms judgements about what is right and good and offers reasons for such judgements (class focus)
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Normative ethics
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Prescriptive ethic: deals with formulation of morals or norms of living; forms judgements about what is right and good and offers reasons for such judgements (class focus)
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Analytical ethics/metaethics
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Prescriptive ethic: investigates the meaning of specific ethical terms; clear about terms
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3 types of normative
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1. Teleological Theories \"consequentialist ethics\" 2. Deontological theories 3. Aretological Ethics \"virtue theories\"
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Teleological Theories
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-Normative ethic -\"Consequentialist ethics\" -determines whether an act is good or evil depending on the consequences of that action -considers good vs. evil that an action produces backed on right act (act that produces the most good) and wrong act (act that doesn't produce the most good) EMPHASIS ON THE RESULTS
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Deontological Ethics
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-Normative ethic -\"Non-consequentialist ethics\" -determines whether an act is good or evil by following the rules EMPHASIS ON THE RULES
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Areteological ethics
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-Normative ethic -\"Virtue ethics\" -What we do and the choices we make are less important; significance is found in the kind of people we become EMPHASIS ON THE PERSON AS A WHOLE, not one individual decision
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Cultural Relativism
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people's moral beliefs vary from one culture to another; sociological fact
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Ethical relativism
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There is no universal moral standard; right and wrong are determined by one's culture and may vary from situations
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Formula for ethical relativism
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doing \"x\" is right when one is a member of society \"s\" and society \"s\" deems these acts to be right
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Problems with ethical relativism:
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1. what constitutes as a society/culture 2. multiple opinions within the culture 3. can a person disagree with their own culture or must they conform 4. does disagreement on an issue mean that the issue has no absolute truth about the issue
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Benefits with ethical relativism
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We shouldn't assume our moral beliefs are the correct/best ones
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Ethical absolutism
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One universal moral code that exists; applies to everyone, everywhere
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Three types of ethical absolutism
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1. nonconflicting absolutism: many absolutes that never conflict with each other 2. Conflicted absolutism: many absolutes that sometimes conflict and in a dilemma, choose the greater good (responsibility/guilt for breaking the absolute standard; requires reconciliation) 3. Grades absolutism: many absolutes that sometimes conflict and in a dilemma, choose the greater good; no guilt or responsibility b/c you are doing the best you can do
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Ethical Egoism
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-Teleological, Normative, Philosophical Ethic -Ethical Egoism is NOT psychological egoism (but could use psychological egoism as a justification for ethical egoism) -Individuals should act in their own self-interest -Concerned with the best consequence for the individual (only)
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Psychological egoism
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everyone always acts according to his own selfish, self-interesting act; unselfish act is impossible; could serve as a justification for ethical egoism
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Right and Wrong choice for Ethical Egoism
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Right choice: individual's best interest promoted Wrong choice: fails to promote individual's best interest promoted
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3 Variations of Ethical Egoism
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1. Personal Ethical egoism: I ought to do what is in my best interest; makes no claim of others 2. Individuals ethical egoism: Every person out to do what is in my best interest 3. Universal ethical egoism: every person ought to do what is in his/her best interest
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Method/Thought process of universal Ethical Egoism
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1. Determine the alternative actions possible for a given situation 2. Determine the consequences for each alternative 3. Based on the potential consequences, determine which act will promote my best interest to the greatest extend 4. Grant everyone else the freedom to make his/her own decisions and act
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Advantages to universal ethical egoism
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1. Easier to determine what is in one's own best interest than what is in other's best interests 2. Encourage individuals freedom and responsibility
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Problems with universal ethical egoism
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1. unable to resolve conflict of interest 2. introduces inconsistency into moral counsel 3. may NOT provide a helpful basis for professions that serve others (medicine, clergy)
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Utilitarianism
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-Teleological, Normative, Philosophical ethic We should decide our morals based on what produces the greatest good for the most people
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Right choice and wrong choice of utilitarianism
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Right choice: brings the greatest good to the most people Wrong choice: do NOT bring the greatest good to the most people
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Jeremy Bentham
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Believed the only thing intrinsically good is happiness and pleasure. Therefore, we should seek what will bring the greatest pleasure to the most people \"Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation\"
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Act Utilitarianism
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-Utilitarianism, Teleological, Normative, Philosophical Ethic -Concerned with what act produces the best results for the most people (focused on individual actions) -Does not create rules to govern actions 1. each situation and person is different, therefore what is right in one situation may be wrong in another
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Method of Act Utilitarianism
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1. Determine the alternative actions possible in a situation 2. Determine what people will be affected by these actions 3. Estimate how much the action will affect each group (positive or negative) 4. Determine which act produces the greatest good for the most people
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Advantages of act utilitarianism
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-Deals with individual decisions on a case-by-case basis -Goal is to produce a better world for as many people as possible, not just the individual
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Problems with act utilitarianism
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-Too time consuming to calculate the consequences of each action -More difficult to determine the consequences for others than for oneself -Act utilitarianism can justify that seem terribly wrong
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Rule utilitarianism
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-Utilitarianism, Teleological, Normative, Philosophical Ethic -Concerned with rules or guidelines that will produce the best results for the most people -Presupposes that there are enough similar human motives, actions and situations to justify setting up rules -We should follow the rules that produce the best result for the most people, thus avoiding the potential injustices of act utilitarianism -Example: Trial of Jesus
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Method of Rule utilitarianism
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1. Determine the alternative rules that are possible for the situation 2. Estimate the positive and negative consequences in everyone followed a particular rule 3. Determine which rule results in the greatest good for the most people
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Problems with rule utilitarianism
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1. Still possible to justify something that seems terribly wrong, as long as there is a rule to support it 2. Rules that allow for exceptions are more useful that rules that do not, but rules that allow for exceptions may not escape the difficulties of act utilitarianism 3. Revision of \"Never punish the innocent\"
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Situationism
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-Teleological, Normative, Philosophical Ethic -A christian ethical theory developed in the 1960's by episcopalian priest JOSEPH FLETCHER -Claims to be the middle group between two extremes: legalism and antinomianism
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Legalism (situationism)
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-approach decision making with a set of predetermined rules and regulations -letter of the law is most important (NOT the spirit)
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Antinomianism (situationism)
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-Rejects all generally valid ethical norms -Every moral decision is spontaneous and unprincipled, based only on the immediate situation
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Moral standard of situationism
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-act in love, love is the only true intrinsic good -laws, rules, and principles are valid only if they happen to serve love in a particular situation -Situationism is an attempt to follow \"love your neighbor\"
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Four working principals of situationism
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1. pragmatism: the good is what works, seeks concrete practical answers 2. relativism: words like \"never\" and \"always\" have no place in situationism; relativizes the absolute, the way one shows love can vary 3. Positivism: 2 ways to think about religious beliefs: naturalism and positivism 4. Personalism: human beings are more important than rules
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Positivism in situationism
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naturalism: I believe based on what I can learn and understand based on my reason
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Situationism has 6 fundamental points:
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1. love alone is always good (other acts derives values from whether or not is demonstrates love) 2. Love is the only universal rule (follow laws as long as they serve love, but if there is a conflict, love is followed) 3. Love and justice are the same (to be loving is to be just) 4. love is not the same thing as liking (love seeks the good of everybody, even our enemies) 5. Love justifies the means 6. Love decides on the spot (decisions are made situationally, not perspectively)
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Advantage to situationism
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1. resolve the issue of conflicting norms (one norm-love) 2. gives due value to differing circumstances 3. stresses love and the value of human beings
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Problems with situationism
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1. Is it better than having no moral standards at all? Almost any act could be called \"tough love\" 2. Is love the only gesture that persons should show to each other?
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socrates
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This person first distinguished between deontological and teleological ethics
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this distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic values dates to this person
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aristotle
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this person's ideas mark the beginning of the discipline we now called \"ethics\"
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socrates
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General ethics is divided into this many dimensions
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intuitionism
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This ethical approach determines the 'good' without sense perceptions or scientific observation
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pleasure
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this is the most controversial answer to the question 'what has intrinsic value?'
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virtue
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persons concerned with an ethic of being may claim that this is the only intrinsic good
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naturalism
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this ethical approach is concerned with pronouncements of fact that can be empirically verified
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casuistry
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the practice of sharpening one's ethical skills by seeking resolutions to ethical dilemmas is called
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immanuel kant
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The \"categorical imperative\" is associated with this person
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pluarlistic deontologism
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Christians who invoke the ten commandments or jesus's sermon on the mount generally follow this ethical approach
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this ethical theory risks a potential loss of justice for the individual
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utilitarianism
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Empirical ethics
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\"Descriptive morals\" is another name for this dimension of ethics
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Utilitarianism
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All variations of these ethical theories are subject to criticism of depending on human ability to predict the results of actions
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noncognitivism
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This ethical approach denies that ethical claims have any rational content and states that they say nothing that is either true or false
