Sport Psychology in Sport Aerobics Essay Example

she was performing incorrectly and thus what she was required to improve upon. The amount, content, frequency, precision, and type of augmented feedback provided are critical elements in skill acquisition, and manipultaion of these variables can result in different learning outcomes (Li, W. Solmon, M. A. , Lee, A. M. , Purvis, G. , & Chu, H. , 2007). The student had a sufficient amount good quality feedback at a constant frequency and precision which enable her to progress from the high cognitive stage to the high associative stage during the term. Temporal feedback is feedback that is related to an athlete's personal improvement. Normative feedback provides evaluative information about their ability relative to others (Li, W. et al,2007).

Li et al (2007) also state that students with entity views of ability are more likely to favour normative feedback, whereas students with incremental views of ability are more attentive to temporal feedback. The athlete mainly relied on temporal feedback, as she was highly focussed on improving her own skills rather than comparing them to other peoples'. Feedback has at least three major functions: motivation, reinforcement or punishment, and error correction (Williams, J. M. , 2006).

As the athlete was highly motivated towards the task, she did not require any external motivation. The main function of feedback that the student used was that of error correction. The error correction function of feedback is regarded by many as the most important. Throughout the term, the athlete used this function repeatedly by drawing on both intrinsic and augmented feedback in order to enhance her performance. Another principle that the athlete used in order to reach optimal performance was imagery.

Imagery is

defined as "using all the senses to recreate or create an experience in the mind" (Vealey, R. S. & Greenleaf, C. A. , 2001). In an expansion of this definition, Cox (2002) states that imagery can involve an image being created in the mind in the absence of external stimuli, involves one or all of the senses and/or an image being created from information stored in the sensory register, working memory or long term memory.

Because the brain cannot tell the difference between the actual physical event and vivid imagery of the same event (Fisher, A. C. , 1986), imagery can be used by the brain to provide powerful repetition, elaboration, intensification and preservation of important athletics sequences and skills (Cox, R. H. , 2002). Cox (2002) also states that although physically practicing skills is superior to mentally practicing them, mental practice is better than no practice. However, mental practice used in a complementary fashion with physical practice has been found to often yield the best results (Feltz, D. L. & Landers, D. M. , 1983; Grouios, G. , 1992; Hinshaw, K. E. ,1991).

During the course of the term, the athlete was injured for a short period of time, making her unable to participate in physical practice. Therefore, the student had to rely upon mental practice to consolidate the parts of the routine learnt during the classes that she was not able to take part in. According to Paivio (1985), imagery has both a cognitive and motivational function. The cognitive function of imagery is the use of mental imagery to experience specific sports skills and to plan strategies and routines in advance of competitions or major

performances.

The motivational function of imagery is to experience goal attainment, effective coping, and arousal management (Cox, R. H. , 2002). Within such functions, there are many ways to use imagery in sport. These include but are not limited to learning and practicing sport skills, correcting mistakes, learning and practicing performance strategies, mentally focussing oneself for competition, and aiding in recovery from injuries (Williams, J. M. , 2006). The athlete used imagery in all of the above ways to ensure that she performed to the best of her potential.

She used imagery to learn and practice skills and segments of the routine when physical practice was not possible, she used imagery in order to correct her mistakes by taking corrective feedback, visualising the changes and then attempting to perform these changes. She also used visualisation in order to learn the routine while taking part in physical practice as well as when she was injured. Mahoney and Avener (1977) state that imagery has two perspectives, and defined these perspectives as internal and external.

Internal imagery involves the person imagining being inside her body and experiencing those sensations that might occur while performing in the real situation. External imagery occurs when the subjects view themselves from the perspective of an external observer (much like watching themselves on TV) (Mahoney, M. J. & Avener, M. , 1977). According to Hardy and Callow (1999), both internal and external imagery utilizes all five of the body's senses, however different skills may benefit more from one perspective than from another.

The student used a combination of the two perspectives throughout the term to ensure all aspects of her performance were progressing. She used internal imagery

more regularly as it was more natural, however the use of external imagery also aided her progress throughout the term. There are three theories that explain why imagery works as a way of learning skills and routines. These are the Symbolic Learning theory, Psychoneuromuscular theory, and the Attention and Arousal Set theory. The symbolic learning theory purports to explain the phenomenom of performance enhancement, through imagery, as being based upon advanced planning (Cox, R. H. , 2002).

This theory states that subliminal electric activity in the musculature is not required, the individual literally plans her actions in advance and that motor sequences, task goals and alternative solutions are considered cognitively before a physical response is required (Cox, R. H. , 2002). The psychoneuromuscular theory aims to explain the phenomenom through imagery based upon subliminal neuromuscular patterns. It posits that neuromuscular patterns from imagery are identical to those used during actual practice (Cox, R. H. , 2002).

According to Cox (2002), this theory gives the most plausible explanation as to why imagery facilitates physical performance and learning. The attention and arousal set theory combines the cognitive aspects of the symbolic learning theory with the physiological aspects of the psychoneuromuscular theory to explain performance enhancement through imagery (Cox, R. H. , 2002). Individual athletes require different motivational tools and psychological skills in order to enhance their performance. Throughout the term, the athlete used a number of psychological techniques to ensure that she performed to her potential.

She mainly utilised feedback given to her from her peers, family members and teachers, as well as intrinsic feedback. She used imagery and mental practice in order to learn and practice the routine when

physical practice was not possible due to location or injury. She used a combination of internal and external imagery in order to gain the maximum advantage from it. Overall, the athlete implemented many of the psychological skills learnt both in class and from independent research to maximise her ability to perform to a satisfactory level.