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refers to the knowledge, rules, traditions, and attitudes that guide behavior in a particular group of people.

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Culture

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Social class is one of the best predictors of cultural differences. Ethnicity, gender, and level of intellectual functioning are variables that contribute to cultural differences, but social class remains the strongest predictor of academic achievement.

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Social class and cultural difference

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Factors that may lead low-income students to perform less successfully in school include the following: poor health; limited resources, low self-esteem; learned helplessness, resistance cultures (rejects middle class); tracking practices; child rearing practices that do not promote independent thinking and low expectations.

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Identify some of the factors that may lead low-income students to perform less well in school than middle-income students with the same abilities.

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Rejects middle class

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Resistance cultures

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child rearing practices that do not promote independent thinking and low expectations.

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Tracking

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teachers assume

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Ethnic groups and cognitive abilities

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a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional.

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Outcomes of Brown vs. Board of Education

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has to do with the inflexible and irrational attitudes and opinions held by members of one group about another usually means having preconceived beliefs about groups of people or cultural practices.

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Prejudice

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refers to behaviors directed against another group

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discrimination

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which is the extra emotional and cognitive burden that a student of a minority group may experience when feeling apprehensive about confirming a stereotype.

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stereotype threat

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This burden can induce a student's test anxiety and undermine their academic performance Woolfolk suggests the strategies teachers use for decreasing test anxiety (i.e., no time limit for exams; the belief that intelligence can be improved, etc.) can help students resist stereotype threat.

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Stereotyping and stereotype threat

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occurs when males and females are treated differently, mainly due to stereotypes ascribed to each sex

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Gender differences in schools

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male infants are treated more physically by parents whereas female infants are protected more. In general, males are encouraged to become more independent, females dependent. At school, textbooks frequently portray females in roles that depict them as passive or domestic.

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Example of Gender Biass

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Teachers are more likely to verbally interact with males and assign them more active classroom responsibilities. Expectancies to do well in math and science are more likely to be conveyed to males than to females.

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example of gender bias in schools

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students taking educational risks within the classroom... If we as teachers let our students see us take risks even when failure may very well be the outcome, they will feel safe to take risks themselves, knowing they can always try again if they don't "get it right" the first time. In modeling resilience as teachers, we inadvertently create a genuinely safe environment in which students feel comfortable with the trial and error aspect of learning, and we begin to earn the trust of our students.

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Resilient students

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when *experience* causes a relatively permanent change in behavior and knowledge.

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Behavioral views of learning

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-Association of two events through repeated pairings. -Learning by association (two events or sensations that are remembered because of repeated pairings).

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Principle of contiguity

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when individuals learn to respond to or form an attitude toward a stimulus that previously had no effect or a very different effect on them.

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Classical conditioning

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The balloon demonstration

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example of classical conditioning

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Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents (events that precede an action).

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Operant conditioning

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strengthening or increasing behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior.

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Positive reinforcement

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receiving treats for following directions.

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ex of positive reinforcement

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increasing a target behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.

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negative reinforcement

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Monty flicking the rope at the horse in the round pen technique.

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Example of Negative reinforcement

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weakens or suppresses behavior decreases behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior

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presentation punishment

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Detention

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ex of presentation punishment

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No recess

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ex of removal punishment

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decreases behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior.

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removal punishment

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reinforcement after *every* response

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Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous

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Giving a dog a treat every time he does a trick.

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Ex of Continuous Reinforcement

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reinforcement after a *set* period of *time*

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Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed-Interval

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exams in this class

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example of fixed interval

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reinforcement after *varying* lengths of time.

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Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable-interval:

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pop quizzes

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Ex of variable interval

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reinforcement after a set number of responses

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Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed-ratio:

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Playing on computer after completing math problems

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Ex of Fixed ratio

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reinforcement after a varying number of responses.

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Schedules of Reinforcement: Variable-ratio

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Marge Simpson and the slot machines.

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Ex of variable ratio

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Acquisition and later performance of behaviors demonstrated by others.

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Observational Learning

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Attention, Retention, Production Processes, Motivation and Reinforcement

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What is necessary for observational learning to occur?

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our ability to retain a representation of others' behavior in memory.

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Retention

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our ability to actually perform the actions we observe

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Production Processes

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our need for the actions we observe; their usefulness to us.

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Motivation and Reinforcement

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A point system or token economy involves awarding ("reinforcing") tokens, chips, stickers, check marks , points, stars, or other items/markings to students who demonstrate desired behaviors identified by the teacher.

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token reinforcement strategies

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a method that assists you in setting goals for the behavior of a certain student. Shaping will provide guidance and direction for your behavior change program, and will help you assess its effectiveness. It can assist you in changing an aberrant behavior or creating an appropriate behavior that is not yet in the student's repertoire.

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shaping

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information that applies to many situations. How do you spell Dictionary

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General Knowledge

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information that applies to only one specific topic. Who was the last philly to win the Kentucky Derby Who played right field when the cubs won the world series

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Domain-specific

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knowing when and why to use declarative and procedural knowledge. Joe has 5x pumpkins as nick joe has 100 pumpkins how many does nick have?

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conditional knowledge

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"knowing how to"; performing a task. first thing you do when changing the oil in a car

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procedural

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"knowing that" something is the case. Name all the presidents since Eisenhower

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declarative

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system of receptors holding sensory information (1-3 seconds; huge capacity). Giving us a large list of numbers and letters for a short period of time and making us remember

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Sensory register (capacity and duration)

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holding a limited amount of information briefly (5-9 chunks of information for approximately 20-30 seconds).

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short-term memory (capacity and duration)

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permanent store of knowledge (practically unlimited capacity and duration). your earliest memory

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long-term memory (capacity and duration)

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the information you are focusing on at a given moment. what are you thinking about rn

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Working Memory

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keeping information in working memory/long-term memory by associating it with something you already know. Dr Kellys pretend party, and dates

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Elaborative Rehearsal

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keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself (Woody). Phone number? number again?

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Maintenance rehearsal

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grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units. dog bat hippo

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Chunking

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A best example or representative of a category. Famous race horse Secretariat

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prototype

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perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern. dog Dog

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Levels of processing theory: Bottom-Up Processing:

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perceiving based on the context and the patterns you expect to occur in that situation. big brown animal with fur that lives in the forest

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Levels of processing theory: Top-Down Processing:

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fading of memory with the passage of time or Reconstruction: recreating information by using memories expectations, logic and existing knowledge. who was your class president when did you graduate who was your freshman year class president

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Decay

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the ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort. write the alphabet as fast as you can

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Automaticity:

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basic structures for organizing information and concepts. Currency where you can exchange an amount for a product

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Schema

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typical structure or organization for a category of stories. Rudogh with your nose so bright wont you ride my sleigh tonight

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Story Grammar:

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expected plan for the sequence of steps in a common event. what do you do right when you wake up -turn off alarm, retainers out, make bed

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script

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long-term memory for information tied to a particular place and time. where did you graduate

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Episodic Memory

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techniques for remembering; the art of memory. 30?

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Mnemonic devices

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technique for remembering names, phrases, or steps by using the first letter of each word to form a new memorable word. NIMBY not in my back yard

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Acronym

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techniques a person can use to help them improve their ability to remember something. In other words, it's a memory technique to help your brain better encode and recall important information. L S K B A C G

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Mnemonic Device

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i need to remember my grocery list: I need to get bread, cottage cheese,steak, bananas, milk, and syrup. bread = kitchen cottage cheese = TV room steak = dinning room bananas = Molly's bedroom milk = bathroom syrup = our bedroom

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Loci Method

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1. Psychological/Individual/ Cognitive Constructivism ? Focuses on the active role of the learner in constructing knowledge Social Construction Views social interactions as necessary to construct knowledge

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Key points distinguishing constructivism from teacher-centered classrooms

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Focuses on the active role of the learner in constructing knowledge

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Psychological/Individual/ Cognitive Constructivism

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Views social interactions as necessary to construct knowledge

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Social Construction

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individuals construct their own cognitive structures as they interpret their experiences in particular situations First-wave constructivism Piaget

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Psychological Constructivism:

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Piaget focuses more on meaning as it is constructed by the individual (not necessarily a correct representation) Thinking becomes more organized as children age Concern with logic ? Such knowledge comes from reflection Social environment important factor, but social interaction was not the main mechanism for changing thinking

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First wave constructivism (Piaget)

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Interaction, PIaget "for GET talking to people"

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who thought social interaction was NOT the main mechanism for changing thinking

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Learning meaning means belonging to a group and participating in the social construction of knowledge -Vygotsky was a mix between psychological/social constructivism *ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEV* one of proximal development: area in which a child can solve a problem with the help of an adult or more able peer Culture creates cognition - when adults use tools and practices to steer the child Cognition creates culture - adult and child generate new practices and solutions

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second wave constructivism (Vygotsky)

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Social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning

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Social Constructivism:

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Situated (V): The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings---HORSE BACK RIDING

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Situated learning vs. transfer

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Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions The students: Formulate hypotheses to explain/solve the problem Collect data Draw conclusions Reflect on the problem and thinking processes

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Inquiry learning

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Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process Designed to help students develop knowledge that is useful and flexible

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-Problem-based learning

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1. Students observe an expert model the performance 2. Students get support through coaching or tutoring 3. Students receive scaffolding that gradually fades 4. Students articulate their knowledge 5. Students reflect on their progress 6. Students explore new ways to apply what they are learning

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Six features of cognitive apprenticeship

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Situation in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals

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-Cooperative learning groups

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Group work-not everyone cooperating awkward ex. Positive independence only do well if others do well-roles interaction accountability social skills group processing

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-Benefits and pitfalls of cooperative learning experiences

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Support for learning and problem solving Clues ? Reminders ? Encouragement ? Breaking down the steps ? Providing examples

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Scaffolding

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Contingency Support: Fading: Transferring responsibility think of activity

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3 Characteristics of Scaffolding

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Interpretation of Sensory information what we think we see "Birds in the moonlight pans in the spring hand dance"

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Perception

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theory that states that people organize information into coherent wholes. Dalmatians sniffing the ground, image in b/w

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Gestalt

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focus on a stimulus. extent to which we focus on others' behavior. how many times do they pass the ball

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