Ed Psych Exam 2 – Flashcards

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gross motor development
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large movements - crawling, walking
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fine motor development
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smaller movements - reaching, grasping
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Do motor skills develop at a universal or individual rate?
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individual
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motor skills as dynamic systems
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increasingly complex systems of action with each skill
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factors that are considered when a baby reaches a new motor milestone
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1. CNS 2. body's movement capacity 3. child's goals 4. environmental supports
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How does culture affect in motor development
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home environment and infant-rearing practices affect motor development - some cultures discourage rapid motor development (to keep babies safe so they can't put dangerous things in their mouth) and others teach specific early motor skills
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"tummy time"
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a motor development routine that's used in Western Culture - putting infant on its stomach so it can practice lifting its head up, pushing its body up, or crawling
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Reaching steps
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1. prereaching (newborn - baby learns to use its arms) 2. ulnar/palmar grasp (3-4 months) - baby can hold something 3. transferring object from hand to hand (4-5 months) 4. pincer grasp (9 months) - use thumb and one finger to hold small object
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Do babies learn to reach with their hands or feet first?
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feet
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Hearing development milestones
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4-7 months: sense of musical phrasing 6-8 months: babies "screen out" sounds from non-native languages 7-9 months: divide the speech stream into word-like units 10 months: can detect words that start with weak syllables
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Vision Development
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brain development leads to rapid improvements in vision skills. 2-4 months: ability to focus, color vision 6 months: baby scans things around them, track things 6-7 months: depth perception
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Baby's vision doesn't become acute until
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4 years
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Habituation
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gradual decrease in strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation or exposure. Drives babies to explore and learn
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Babies are naturally drawn to __________ experiences
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novel. Eventually prefer and recognize familiarity
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Vision and perception rod test
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first show baby a rod moving behind an object. Then show baby 2 images. one of complete rod, one of broken rod. Babies look at broken rod (as early as 2 months) which shows that they recognize the first rod as full (babies look at new info for longer)
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Face perception throughout development
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- newborns prefer mother's face - 3 months: can distinguish between 2 strangers - 5-7 months: can perceive emotions through facial expression
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what types of images do babies prefer
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images with face-like features (naturally arranged)
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Babies can distinguish between different females or males sooner
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females (bc more exposure)
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Perceptual narrowing effect
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perceptual sensitivity becomes increasingly attuned with age (multiple senses, shaped by environment)
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intermodal perception
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simultaneous input is received from more than one sensory system (intermodal stimulation) and then we make sense of this multi-sensory input as an integrated whole -; facilitates perception of physical world and understanding of social world
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cognition
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the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses
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cognition synonyms
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perception, learning, understanding
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developmental domains
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cognitive, social-emotional, physical
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Schemas
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Part of Piaget's ideas about cognitive change. organized ways of making sense of experience (creating folders of what you see in your mind). EX: baby bangs his rattle (scheme). Now he bangs a block and it feels very similar (assimilation). Now he bangs an egg and it breaks (accommodation).
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Adaption
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building schema through direct interaction with the environment. 2 types: assimilation - We use our current schemes to interpret the external world. Add new information to existing information accommodation - we create NEW schemas or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking are incorrect
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equilibrium
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A time when children's lives are staying more the same. They are assimilating more than they are accommodating. More stable in their development
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disequilibrium
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During times of rapid change, children shift from assimilation to accommodation
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organization
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internal process of rearranging and linking together schemas to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system.
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Piaget's stages of cognitive development
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sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) properational concrete operational formal operational
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sensorimotor stage
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piaget believed that children in the first two years of life think with their eyes, ears, and hands. can't yet carry out many activities in their head Substages: 1. Reflexive Schemes - babies suck, grasp, and look regardless of world around them 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) - babies gain control of actions through primary circular reactions (repeating a behavior based on need until you gain control of it) 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) - babies try to repeat behaviors in order to get something interesting to happen in their environment -; -babies are still not in control enough to imitate others (can't play patty cake but enjoy watching others play patty cake) -No sense of object permanence yet (knowledge that objects exist even when they're out of sight) 4. Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions -; Beginning of more broad intentional behavior -combine schemas into more complex action sequences to engage in intentional, goal-directed behavior -object permanence -; understand that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight -A-not-B errors: Object permanence. Baby knows it's hidden in spot A (from routine) but when it's moved to spot B the baby can't find it 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 months) - babies begin to experiment with their behaviors and not repeat it each time. Action gets one pleasing response so baby tries to do something similar to get a pleasing response 6. Mental representations (18 to 24 months) - baby begins to think. Internal depictions of info that the mind can manipulate. -children can arrive at solutions before an action rather than trial and error -advanced object permanence: understand that when you leave and come back things stay in same place invisible displacement -> if it moves you have to look somewhere else -deferred imitation - being able to "play" and make things up
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what did piaget get wrong?
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the timing (study table 6.1 and 6.2 in your book)
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Follow Up on Piaget....
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Violation of expectation - useful experimental design that allows you to look at object permanence. Mental representation - people believe now that kids have thoughts in their heads younger than 18 months
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Violation of expectation study
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Habituate babies to a physical event or show babies an expected event and an unexpected event (if they look at the unexpected thing we know that the baby thinks it's new and interesting) -; indicates that the infant is "surprised" Question: Can we really infer that the baby is "surprised" or do they just like to look at new things? If the baby is surprised, it would suggest object permanence. Video in class: 3 month old baby has heightened attention to the "magical" event more than the "unmagical" event. This supposedly means she's "surprised" and understands it shouldn't be possible. With slightly older babies, originally not surprised until you show them only one doll behind. Then when you do it again they are surprised. However, critics argue she wasn't shocked that the doll disappeared, she was just looking at something new Some researches believe maybe this is "cognitive equipment" (something we're born with) Others think it's core knowledge - innate knowledge systems that are pre-wired and ready to learn grammar. Set up for you
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What is evidence for object permanence??
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violation of expectation method.
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Cupboard study
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At 14 months, parents put a toy away in the cupboard when they left the house and the baby knew it was their when they got back. Baby even understood that a matching cupboard in a different room also wasn't the right cupboard (this violates Piaget who thought object permanence was at 18 months)
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Other factors that effect A not B error in 8-12 months
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-Built a habit of reaching towards A -Continuing to look at A -typically spot A and B look alike -They are maintaining a constant body posture - everything is very similar already -They are continuing to perfect reaching and grabbing during this time these say that it might not just be because of object permanence
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Success at object search task coincides with
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rapid development of the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex, experiences perceiving, acting on, and remembering objects object permanence is a gradual experience
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Mental representation
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Piaget thought this didn't come until 2 years. Researchers reveal that babies experience this sooner Deferred and Inferred Imitation research reveals that 6 week old infants demonstrate deferred imitation of facial expressions (man made faces at baby and an hour later baby made faces back at him - associated him with his faces)
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Deferred imitation
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the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present at a later date ex: puppet stimuli
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inferred imitation
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infants are more likely to imitate purposeful behaviors than accidental/arbitrary behaviors and can make inferences about other people's intentions (if you do something on accident baby will imitate what you meant to do) researcher puts dog through the chimney looking silly 12 months - child puts dog through the chimney. But if researcher looks confused, then the child will correct him and put dog in the door 14-18 months: researcher spills raisins on the floor and kids immediately pick them up (they know you didn't mean to spill them)
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problem solving
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around 8 months old, infants develop intentional means-end action sequences ex: pull on towel to get toy from other side 10-12 months, babies can problem solve by analogy ex: babies realize they can do the same type of thing with a blanket around end of first year, infants use flexible mental representations of how to use tools to get objects
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symbolic understanding
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displaced reference - words represent things even when they're not there ex: 13 months - hear name of parent who just left, turn towards door Growing understanding of language. Can inform of things that are here or not ex: Lucy frog study. Take lucy out of the room then say lucy got wet! at 19 months, child picks dry one because it's what she saw before. 22 months, pick wet one (flexible use of words) 23 vs 30 months old in book Beginning awareness of the symbolic function of pictures emerges in the first year, strengthens in second. Newborns prefer moms face. 9 months old - pat pictures. 15-24. tell baby the photo is a "blicket" (random word) and then ask baby which toy is a blicket and the baby points to the actual toy (understands that the photo is representative of the toy. Younger would point at both the photo and the toy. This develops faster in countries where there are more photos
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Evaluation of Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage
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some things follow his time frame, other emerge earlier than he thought. Sensorimotor action helps infants construct some forms of knowledge. BUT infants comprehend a lot more sooner than he thought
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Core knowledge perspective
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belief that brain is set up pre wired for you to learn certain things
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why still talk about Piaget?
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basis for the information-processing approach to cognitive development (which we like). It is also of practical value for teachers and caregivers
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infants learn through _______________________
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classical conditioning
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classical conditioning
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infants begin to recognize that certain events happen together. This allows them to anticipate events/actions and makes the world more orderly and predictable
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Operant conditioning
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adding positive or negative reinforcements pos = adding stimulus neg = removing stimulus reinforcers = increase probability of event happening again punishers = decrease probability of event happening again Pos. Reinforcement - adding a stimulus to increase probability of event happening again Neg. Reinforcement - removing a stimulus to increase probability of an event happening again Pos. Punishment - adding stimulus to decrease prob. Neg. Punishment - removing stimulus to decrease prob.
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habituation
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gradual decrease in strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation or exposure
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imitation
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copy behavior of another person. Important to initial infant learning. Expands over first 2 years. Mixed opinions on whether newborn imitation is intentional or an automatic response to stimuli. Then around 1-2 -; they intentionally imitate mirror neurons may underlie imitative capacities - fire identically when primate hears/sees an action as when they carry out that action themselves.
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core knowledge of morals in young infants
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Belief that babies are already born with a sense of right and wrong -study at Yale that may support this: babies watch a puppet show. One character can't get up the hill and the other comes and help. In another trial a 3rd character bumps the original character down the hill. >80% of babies choose the helpful character. Another: one puppet is playing with the ball and drops it. second character gives it back and the third grabs it and steals it. Third: one puppet is trying to open a box and fails. Second helps him, third shuts it.
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Piaget vs. Information processing
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Piaget: one theory that covers all aspects of cognitive development. Very specific stages. vs. Info processing: Focuses specifically on attention, memory, categorization of skills, and problem solving. Piaget combines all of these: says they change together. Info processing looks at them independently and says they change at different rates depending on your environment. BOTH AGREE that children are active learners - play some part in their own development
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Diagram of Info Processing model
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in book.
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Information Processing
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"sensory register": takes in what's around you and stores it. 1. Short term memory store - retaining information in order to actively "work" on it to reach a goal 2. working memory - basic capacity. number of items that can be briefly held in mind while engaging in some effort to manipulate/analyze them in a way to reach your goal -; ex: give students 5 numbers. have to hold them in working mem to repeat them backwards. say your working memory is "5 numbers" 3. long term memory - permanent knowledge base retrieval - getting information back from our long term memory -; strategies include categorization Central executive : runs your memory. conscious part of your mind. More effective it is, the better we are at certain cognitive activities. These are automatic processes (so well learned that they do not take up any space in our working memory) sensory register moves to short term memory with attention. Short term moves to long term with storage. Long term moves back to short term with retrieval.
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automatic processes
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things that are so well learned that they don't take up space in our working memory - don't have to consciously think about it ex: driving a car, walking,
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aspects of the cognitive system that improve with age
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part of information processing model. 1. basic capacity 2. processing speed - how fast you can work on information you're holding in short term or working memory 3. functioning of the central executive -> leads to more complex thinking
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Executive function
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A part of information processing. The cognitive operations and strategies that allow us to reach the goals we're trying to reach. (attention, impulse control, information coordination, though/behavior control). This predicts cognitive and social outcomes. Common to measure on tests. Predicts their task persistence, self control, interpersonal skills
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What part of information processing predicts cognitive and social outcomes?
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Executive functioning. Stronger executive functioning = better interpersonal skills, task persistence, and self control
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Attention in infancy
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Infants need time for habituation and recovery decreases with age - take in information more quickly. At first, infant will spend 3-4 minutes looking at a new object. Later on only 5-10 seconds. This happens throughout first year. In second year, they begin to be able to hold attention. Decreases attention in novelty items. More intentional behavior
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When does intentional behavior begin to increase and how does that benefit them?
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Around two years old. Helps children reach specific goals (predicts later intelligence scores).
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How can parents help foster children's focus?
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Using verbal prompts and gestures and praise will help increase their attention span.
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memory
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processing in infants is similar to adults and older children they are just not able to hold on to as much.
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recognition
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A way to refer to long term memory in babies. noticing when a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced
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Operant conditioning to look at retention in babies example
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Looking at if they remember the relationship. Maximum retention (in weeks) increases proportionally with age in months. Mobil attached to leg up to 6 months Making a train move after 6 months - pushing lever makes train move
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Memory is dependent on __________ for the first _______ of life
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context, 6-9 months. If something changes, they can't generalize the information. Ex: if you move the baby to a different crib, they probably wont remember that they can make the mobil move in a different crib until 9 months.
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When does the importance of context decline?
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9 months
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recall vs recognition
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recognition - same stimulus sparks babies memory recall - remembering something that's not actually present. Babies can do this as early as 6 months of age and increases rapidly.
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What is one way to look at recall in babies
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Hiding something and having baby look for toy. If baby can look under cup for it, they have recall
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what does habituation help us study in infants?
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cognitive skills. Familiarity preference -> Which object they look at for a longer period of time Novelty preference Infants learn and retain info without needing to be physically active.
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outcomes on early memory tasks can predict _____________________________
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performance on memory tests later in childhood. enviroment can affect this. Neg. social interactions, no practice of problem solving, etc. can harm this
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Infantile amnesia
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concept that we are unable to retrieve memories from before the age of 3. Can't be explained by the passage of time because we can recall many meaningful events from the recent and distant past.
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explanations for infantile amnesia
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hard to tell because hard to measure memory in infants. 1 possible explanation: development of new neurons through age of 3. these neurons in hippocampus disrupt memories already stored. Things are still plastic. 2nd: Infants and toddlers don't have the verbal abilities that are used to store information 3rd: toddlers need to develop self-awareness before they can store memories
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categorization
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grouping similar objects and events into categories! children start to do this at a very young age -> physical, social, and emotional factors. Can do this by shape and size within first few months Measured using habituation. Baby is shown 4 photos of different things. Categorization is affected by: Adults labeling and drawing attention to objects, cultural differences in development of categories
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MAKE A TIMELINE
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do it
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Info processing analyzes the cognitive processes ____________
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separately! (rather than broad like Piaget) more recent views on early cognition have applied the dynamic systems theory (info processing is limiting)
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limitations of info processing
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doesn't take social interactions into consideration. -; Vygotsky's sociocultural theory looks at this!
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children's social interactions help them with...
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voluntary attention, deliberate memory, categorization, problem solving. Children develop in similar cognitive ways but the rate for each varies from culture to culture. This is when Vygotsky's sociocultural theory develops.
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Zone of proximal development
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Within their learning range. range of task child can complete with assistance from a skilled partner. Vygotsky.
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scaffolding
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Helping the child in the Zone of proximal development. "helps children pick up mental strategies and build skills to perform tasks independently". Ex: teaching a child to stack blocks. Adult does it first (scaffolding) to show them how to do it. Then they can do it on their own too.
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Modern cultures vs. developing cultures
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modern: use single activities to teach skills that will be used later on developing: commonly learn through observation of others' daily activities (motivated to be part of the community)
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overall cognitive development
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piaget: new schemas developed through active interaction w/ world info processing: focus on practice and children becoming more efficient by developing skills Vygotsky: focus on cultural influence
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cognitive tests
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measure behaviors that reflect developmental level and/or cognitive abilities. Can also predict future intelligence, academic achievement, and career success or if child needs extra support -tests are standardized. Give test to large representative sample and use as a standard for interpreting scores
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intelligence quotient
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IQ score. Average score for all ages = 100. Compare to others of own age. child has intellectual disability ;115 -; child is above average. better than 84% of kids their own age
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Bayley scales
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scale of infant development. 1 month to 3.5 years. Cognitive Scale-III Children perform categorization tasks (which one doesn't belong)
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influence of nurture on cognitive skills
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children in poverty show gradual decline on intelligence test scores. center and home based interventions can help! - educational services, nutritional services, health services, parenting and social support
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childcare influence on cognition
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lower quality childcare - lower cognitive, social, language and academic skills hard to find high quality affordable childcare in US!
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when does a fetus' hearing develop?
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24 weeks
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is crying voluntary or involuntary
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involuntary
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why can't the baby human make sounds yet
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larynx is high in the throat to protect choking, large tongue, small mouth
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What noise does a baby prefer
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mother's voice. also prefers rhythm of their native language over other languages.
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When does the larynx drop?
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3 months old -; baby can now vocalize with other noises besides crying
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Gazing
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babies instinctively know that eye contact is an important part of communication
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culture bound language specialists
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over time, children can only distinguish certain sounds. Eventually, will no longer be able to hear sounds in other languages that aren't used in your dominant language. This happens by 10 months. Earlier than 10months, babies are "universal listeners" and can distinguish between the two sounds
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universal mother-ease
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the way mothers speak to babies. sing song quality, high pitch tone, sentences are reduced to short phrases, repetition. repetition helps the baby learn language
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mouth sound mapping
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baby practices sounds and listens to themselves to learn speech. circa 9 months
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Theories of Language Development
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1. behaviorism 2. nativist theory
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behaviorism
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babies learn language and communication through operant conditioning (reinforcement) and imitation. limitation - can't account for why humans, but not other species acquire language
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Nativist Theory
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Noam Chomsky - believes language is etched into the structure of the brain. Believes grammar is way too complex for it to be taught directly. Focus on nature LAD (language acquisition device): innate system in all children that contains universal grammar. This explains why humans are the only species with a complex language limitations - no actual list of grammatical rules that applies to all languages. -5,000-8,000 languages in the world... one rule? probs not. -children don't generalize grammatical rules or master all grammar until middle childhood (if this was true, they would be able to speak in grammatically correct sentences sooner)
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Where is language located in brain?
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left hemisphere. in Broca's area (language production) and Wernicke's area (comprehension of language)
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Sensitive period for language
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As age increases, ability to learn language decreases. Applies to first and second language. There is a sensitive, or optimal, period for learning language and no specific cut off EX: If a baby damaged their broca's or wernicke's area another area of the brain would be able to take over the skills of those locations. EX: A baby who is born deaf gets implants at 3-4 months, language development is normal. If after the age of 2, children are behind in language development. If after 4, language delays are severe and persistent
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interactionist theory
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Interaction between inner capacities and environmental factors 1. Interactionist/information processing - LOOK UP 2. social interactionist - looking at how children want to communicate -> caregivers provide communication -> children relate content to meaning *disagreement on whether children are born with specialized language structures or not. Agree that their experiences greatly affect their progress
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Developing language parts
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1. production - words and word combinations that children use. *Recall word AND concept 2. comprehension - language that children understand. *recognize meaning
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do all animals point?
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nope. uniquely human
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how do babies learn the names of things?
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Have to point in addition to naming. If it's unclear what the adult is talking about, baby doesn't learn name
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Is it easier for a baby to learn sign language or english?
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sign! the part of the brain that controls physical movements develops sooner than the language part
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Primary engine for learning language to a baby?
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imitation
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What types of words do babies learn more of?
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nouns. Things from daily life. food high on the list
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First Year language
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"coo" - vowel like noises (first around 2 months) *ooo or aaa "babble" - consonant vowel combinations in long strings (first around 2 months) *baba or nana cooing and babbling develop around same age (even if they are deaf)
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other forms of communication besides language
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joint attention - child attends to same thing as caregiver give and take - child and care giver imitate each others sounds preverbal gestures - used to direct attention, influence behavior, and convey info. *pointing *simple sign-language gestures
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first word problems
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under-extension: apply words too narrowly *using "dog" to refer to one specific toy rather than all dogs *younger over-extension: apply words to a wider collection of objects than appropriate *using "car" to refer to all moving vehicles. including trains and trucks *as they get older. Can contextualize the word, but doesn't have a good enough vocabulary to know the subtleties
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telegraphic speech
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Babies first phrases! two word utterance or phrase that focuses on high content words (words they hear a lot) and omit less important ones "more milk" or "go car"
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individual differences in babies
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females slightly ahead in language development. (remember female brain develops at a faster rate)
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factors that can play into language development
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-personality (shy vs outgoing, positive vs negative) -amount and quality of caregiver-child conversation -SES (middle/upper class more pos interactions)
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referential style
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Individual differences in language. some babies vocabulary are mainly words that refer to objects
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expressive style
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more social formulas and pronouns in vocabulary (thank you, done, i want it) These babies tend to be more outgoing
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english speaking children tend to use a lot of ________
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nouns. mothers label objects frequently
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children in asian cultures tend to use more _______
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verbs
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infant directed speech
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how adults speak to young infants. short sentences, high pitched exaggerated expression, pauses between speech segments, clear gestures, repetition targets zone of proximal development!
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supporting language development
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live caregiver infant interactions support and predict language development and later academic success
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emotions often arise when?
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in social relations or external stimuli
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emotions
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feeling that can affect behavior. amplify motivational states. accompanied by physiological changes (cortisol, sweating, crying, endorphins) and thoughts about the emotion and its causes.
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valence of emotions
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positive - negative
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emotions across different people
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uncontrollable quality. different people experience them differently. some are universal.
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folk psychology of emotions
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stimulus (bang!) -; perception/integration (danger) -; particular emotion experienced (fear) -; specific pattern of autonomic arousal (heart races, etc.) EMOTION BEFORE PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGE
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James-Lange theory of emotions
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stimulus (bang!) -; perception/integration (danger) -; specific pattern of autonomic arousal (heart races, etc.) -; particular emotion experienced (fear) LAST 2 SWITCHED - PHYSIOLOGICAL BEFORE EMOTION
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emotions play powerful roles in:
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social relationships, exploration of environment, and discovery of self.
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Emotions become _______________ with age
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more varied and complex
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in children, ______________ provide best clues to emotions vs. adults?
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facial expressions. vs. adults who use many different ways to express emotions
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Do babies smile in first 3 months?
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only a reflex in first month from touching face
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When does baby human learn to read emotions of their mother?
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around 12 weeks. Later for men or other women
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Basic emotions babies can feel
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happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust
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First appearance of basic emotions
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happiness -smile: from birth (reflex) -social smile (from stimulus): 6 to 10 weeks -laugh: 3 to 4 months anger -general distress: from birth -anger (from stimulus): 4-6 months sadness -distress (first) to "still face" (neutral face when sad): 2-7 months fear -first fears: 6-12 months -stranger anxiety: 8-12 months (this goes away after)
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social referencing
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babies will actively seek emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation. Perceive stimulus based on their mother's response.
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cross cultural differences in stranger anxiety
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Efe (republic of congo) has less biological mothers taking direct care of young babies -> collective caregiving system results in less stranger anxiety Earlier and greater stranger anxiety in Israeli settlements that are vulnerable to terrorist attacks
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Emotional expression cross-cultural differences
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Nso people (Cameroon) discourage emotional expression and encourage calmness which results in the social smile being delayed. Japanese and Chinese cultures value social harmony - discourage strong expression of emotions. Results in infants that smile, laugh, and cry less than babies in America
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Self-conscious emotions in baby
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Self consciousness emotions appear after the baby can recognize him/herself (middle of second year). Require adult instruction on when to feel them. embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt, envy.
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Psychodynamic Stages
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Erikson's Stage is still used to look at how parents interact with kids 1st year - how parents interact with baby teaches them to have a trusting or mistrusting nature *warm, loving parents have trusting children 2nd year - autonomy vs. shame and doubt *Parents that provide guidance and choices, and aren't extremely controlling or shame children allows them to develop independence (autonomy)
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temperament
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early-appearing, stable differences in reactivity (quickness and intensity of emotion arousal, attention, and motor activity) and self-regulation (strategies that modify reactivity) ***self-regulation -> often strategies we use when we're experiencing negative emotions
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Rothbart's Model of Temperament
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STUDY SLIDE
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Effortful control Predicts what?
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the babies ability to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response.Predicts persistence, task mastery, academic achievement, moral maturity, and social behaviors.
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Temperament Categories
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Easy Temperament: 40% of babies-adjusts to changes well Difficult Temperament: 10% of babies-intense reactions to changes around them and slow to accept new experiences -higher risk for later adjustment problems Slow to warm up: 15% of babies-more inactive -mild reactions than easy category (for pos. and neg. emotions)-can adapt to changes (slower than easy category)Unclassified: 35%-mix of first three categories
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Subdued personalities show more activity under stimulus in
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right frontal lobe
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Exuberant personalities show more activity under stimulus in
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left frontal lobe
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Do babies temperaments change or stay the same?
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stay the same through 24 months
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bowlby's ethological theory of attachment
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recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival bowlby = first to focus on parent child relationship, but more for survival needs than comfort/love
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What drives early attachment? Is it simply survival or more?
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First experiment that looked at this: Harlow's experiment on young monkeys - infant monkeys removed from mother and raised in isolation. Others can be seen and heard but no interaction. Mother = doll that feeds it and gives it necessities. Young monkey is placed in cage with two dolls - one that is soft and can be cuddled. one that is made of only wire, but offers food. Monkey prefers the soft cuddly one and only goes to the food one when it's hungry. Shows that comfort grows early attachment
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ethological theory of attachment stages
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pre-attachment: birth-6 weeks - don't mind unfamiliar adults attachment in the making: 6 weeks-8 months -interact more with main caregiver than other adults -develop sense of trust with main caregiver. expect a response from them. -attention when they're around, but no separation anxiety yet clear-cut attachment: 6-8 months to 1.5-2 years -separation anxiety -main caregiver = secure base when exploring formation of a reciprocal relationship: 1.5-2 years and on -understand parent may need to leave and that they'll come back -to buy more time with caregiver: negotiate rather than just get upset
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categories of attachment (based on middle class families in the US)
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secure attachment - 60% of children -use parent as secure base. Actively seek parent when they return. Avoidant attachment - 15% of children -child seems unresponsive to parent -ok playing on their own or with someone else -child slow to greet parent upon their return insecure-resistant attachment - 10% of children -seek closeness to parent. Clingy -very upset/distressed when parent leaves -upset AGAIN when parent returns. anger or sadness disorganized/disoriented attachment - 15% -MOST UNHEALTHY relationship between parent and child -greatest insecurity -when parents leave, child shows confused behaviors (sometimes happy, sometimes sad) -behavior more unpredictable -dazed look
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internal working model:
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child's set of expectations about availability and support from an attachment figure - this becomes a part of their personality and serves as a guide for future relationships
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care-giving and attachment
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To form a healthy attachment with a caregiver there needs to be early, consistent and sensitive care-giving...
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INTERACTIONAL SYNCHRONY
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when the caregiver responds to infant signals appropriately -ex: if parent is trying to engage child when child tries to sleep. child might become more avoidant -ex: depressed mothers tend to have children with disorganized attachment. don't know what to expect from parent
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How can attachment be measured in infants?
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1) measure synchronicity 2) attachment q-sort (natural setting). measures attachment in children 1-5 years. Trained observer sorts 90 behaviors of parent-child interactions in the home and rates how true each one is - "if mother moves far away, the child follows along"
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synchronicity
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parent and child have a similar emotional response to an emotional event -this a good predictor of good attachment ex: play sad or happy music and see if parent and child show same emotion and same intensity
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when does separation anxiety appear and leave?
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appears 6-8 months. the same time that babies learn to crawl.
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sign of healthy attachment
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separation anxiety. 8 months to 1.5-2 years. sad/stressed when mother leaves and consoled QUICKLY upon her return
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sign of unhealthy attachment
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when parent returns, baby responds with anger or avoidance, not happiness
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separation anxiety timeline
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begins at 8 months. peaks at 10 months. fades last half of second year.
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with secure attachment do babies always listen to their parents?
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nope! only when they're unsure about a situation
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cross cultural differences in the strange situation task
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strange situation task = experiment with researcher and mother leaving more avoidant attachment than resistant in germany and US. japan and israeli kibbutzim more resistant attachment than avoidant. note: behaviors can be misinterpreted due to cultural differences -ex: independence promoted more in Germany -> higher avoidant attachment in Germany. Doesn't necessarily mean they have a bad relationship -Japan: mothers spend even more time with their babies early on. Not much experience with being separated so reaction is more intense when mother leaves
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multiple attachments?
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infants can form multiple attachments: fathers, grandparents, nannies, etc. -interact with mother and father equally if both there but more upset when mother leaves -mother attachment because mother often spends more intimate time with child can be harder with siblings
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how can parents promote sibling attachment?
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-spend extra time with older child -patience with sibling misbehavior -discuss baby's wants and needs. Teach older sibling how to help care for baby -> older sibling can develop pride when caring for baby -express positive emotion towards partner and engage in joint problem solving
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peer sociability
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promoted by child-caregiver bond secure attachment often related to positive outcomes in preschool and middle childhood children should be exposed to other children their same age by the age of 2 to start forming those relationships
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continuity of caregiving may link ...
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infant attachment and later development
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effects of early attachment security are __________
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Conditional. They depends upon the quality of future relationships. Need to continue having secure healthy relationships to have that well being.
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children that have secure early attachment to parents have what qualities later?
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self regulation, social skills, stronger moral compass,
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negative attachment in parents leads to children that:
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are avoidant of other people, hard to build healthy relationships, disorganized behavior
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self awareness
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at birth, infants have a sense of self as a distinct agent, separate from the surrounding world. Measured by habituation (showing photos of legs from different angle -> when angle isn't from their own view of themselves, they look at that photo longer). -can categorize themselves based on characteristics (age, gender, etc.) between 18 and 30 months
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self-recognition
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sense of self as object of knowledge and evaluation. Aware of qualities that make self unique at 20 months. -Begin to see themselves as a social being ****** this is being able to recognize yourself in a mirror study: baby stands on rug tied to cart and tries to move it. researchers believe that babies have to have a sense of self in order to understand that they are the ones stopping it from moving. DEVELOPS AT 18 MONTHS
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Scale Error
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2.5 year old child plays in room of large toys (car, chair, slide). If they replace the toys was miniature replicas, the child tries to get into the car anyways. They know the toys are small but don't change their behavior. sense of scale is so fragile that their emotions can overpower their perception
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development of self-awareness
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-sensitive caregiving and culture play roles -self-awareness helps the child begin to relate to others and develop empathy -needed to become capable of compliance
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physical development
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process that starts in infancy and continues into adolescence focusing on gross (large muscles) and fine (small movements) motor skills & puberty. -developing control over the body -peak in childhood
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EARLY CHILDHOOD -years -children add _____________ inches in height and about _______ pounds in weight each year in early childhood -what else happens to body?
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2-6 years old 2-3 inches 5 pounds -boys bigger and more muscular -posture and balance improve -individual differences in body size are more apparent during early childhood than in infancy and toddlerhood -note that growth norms are different across populations and cultures -> must be taken into account when looking at health based on height
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skeletal growth
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Both bones and dental BONES -2-6 years old approximately 45 new epiphyses emerge in various parts of the skeleton (epiphyses = growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone) DENTAL -children start to lose baby (primary) teeth by end of preschool years -diseased baby teeth can affect the health of permanent teeth
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how is dental health linked to income?
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low income have less access to healthy food or may not invest in dental health insurance
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brain development
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2-6 years - brain increases from 70% of adult weight to 90% of adult weight age 5-6 - cerebral cortex has overproduced synapses (energy metabolism in cortex peaks) age 8-10 - plasticity of young brain leads to synaptic pruning -> decline in brain plasticity (conserve energy)
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EEG
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measures neural activity. Electroencephalogram.
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NIRS
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near-infrared spectroscopy. measures neural activity .
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fMRI
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functional magnetic resonance imagine. measures neural activity.
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what do EEG NIRS and fMRI all show about brain development?
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major development in brain from age 2-10 (early and middle childhood) reveals rapid growth from early to middle childhood in prefrontal-cortical areas devoted to inhibition of impulses, attention, working memory (store info in your brain until you need to use it), and planning and organizing behavior
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Left cerebral hemisphere vs right hemisphere
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left hemisphere is especially active between ages 3-6. right hemisphere activity increases steadily. shows lateralization - some cognitive processes are dominant
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handedness
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**research on handedness supports the joint contribution of nature and nurture to brain lateralization fetus can show preference for hand with thumb sucking; 6mos are more proficient reaching with one hand **reflects the greater capacity of the individual's dominant cerebral hemisphere to carry out skilled motor action -twins are more likely to differ in handedness -baby's head position can influence handedness ** demonstrates lateralization - brain tries to specialize
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left handedness
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higher in people with intellectual disabilities and mental illness - early damage to the left hemisphere that may also have caused their disabilities (maternal stress, prolonged labor, prematurity) most left handers have no developmental problems and may even be slightly advantaged in speed and flexibility of thinking -> perhaps more even distribution of cognitive functions
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cerebellum
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rear and base of brain. balance and motor coordination.
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reticular formation
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in brain stem. maintains alertness and consciousness. myelinates throughout early childhood and into adolescence. *controls sleep cycle
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hippocampus
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inner brain structure. memory and images of space that help us find our way. develops rapidly in second half of first year, when recall memory and independent movement emerge *develops fairly early! 2 year old has good recall but poor communication skills
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amygdala
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inner brain structure. processes novel and emotional information.
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prefrontal cortex
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regulation of emotion
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corpus callosum
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fibers connecting left and right hemispheres. increase at age 1 and peak between 3-6 years. smooth coordination of movements on both sides of the body and integration of many aspects of thinking involved in complex tasks.
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Heredity and hormones influence on physical development
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-genes control production of hormones which influence physical growth pituitary gland: 2 hormones 1. GH (growth hormone) - development of all body tissues 2. TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) - prompts thyroid gland to release thyroxine, necessary for brain development and for GH to have full impact on body size 2% of kids have GH deficiencies - series of injections. not needed (cost/benefit analysis -> sizism isn't true - short men do fine in society) TSH deficiencies must be treated immediately - necessary for brain development. If not treated, death
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emotion well-being on growth
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stressful home lives -; more respiratory and intestinal illnesses ; more unintentional injuries
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psychosocial dwarfism
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short stature, immature skeletal age, serious adjustment problems. can be caused by extreme emotional deprivation which suppresses release of GH. Can return to normal if child is removed from stressful environment.
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sleep habits and problems on growth
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-body produces GH during sleeping hours -sleep difficulties associated with impaired cognitive performance -; more pronounced effect in low-SES children -Stress + lack of sleep = bad -majority of Western parents engage in bedtime routines with their preschoolers
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cosleeping
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when kids sleep with parents. common everywhere by in the US. caucasian preschoolers are less likely to cosleep with their parents than african-american and hispanic.
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sleep problems may result from ________
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inadequate parental control over young children's media use or from a mismatch between parental demands and children's biology
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how many 3-6 year olds experience occasional nightmares?
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half
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percent of children that are frequent sleepwalkers
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4%
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percent of children that experience sleep terrors
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3%
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nutrition on physical development
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-preschool appetite declines bc growth has slowed -pickiness is adaptive (from evolution) -preschoolers need a high-quality diet that incudes same adult food in lower quantities -children imitate family/friend food choices -increased adult control at mealtime impacts kids ability to recognize hunger cues on their own -many children in US and developing countries lack access to sufficient high-quality food to support growth -; called a "food dessert" -nutritionally deficient diet is associated with learning and behavioral problems in childhood and adolescence
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infectious disease ; malnutrition
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-minor illnesses like colds can poorly affect children that are malnourished -disease is a major contributor of malnutrition - hindering psychical growth and cognitive development -diarrhea - growth stunting, childhood deaths, and lower intelligence scores * can give kids oral re-hydration therapy (ORT)
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how many deaths of children under 5 annually
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6.6 million. 98% developing countries, 65% due to infectious disease
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Immunization
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immunization results in dramatic declines in chidlhood diseases -17% of US preschoolers lack essential immunizations -22% for poverty stricken children -; inability to pay for vaccines and lack of access to primary care - some parents do not immunize their children because of misconceptions about vaccine safety (causes autism - just both appear around 2) -day care attendance correlated with childhood illnesses
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otitis media / middle ear infection
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common between 6 months and 3 years -; can result in delayed language progress in early childhood and poorer academic performance
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leading cause of childhood mortality? where and what
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industrialized nations. unintentional injuries. US - 35% childhood deaths / 50% of adolescents
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factors related to childhood injuries
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childhood injuries occur within a complex ecological system of individual, family, community, and societal influences. boys more likely to be injured than girls - greater impulsivity and risk taking inattentiveness, overactivity, and aggression also related to higher risk of injuries (also often boys) -; less likely to comply with safety factors poverty, single parenthood, low parental education -; more distractions -; injury societal conditions: rapid pop. growth, overcrowded cities, heavy traffic + weak safety measures -; injury
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how can we prevent childhood injuries?
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laws requiring safety, community efforts to modify environment (car seats, medicine caps, pool fences) interventions aimed at parents that highlight risk factors and model and reinforce safety practices that help reduce home hazards and childhood injuries family conditions important
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