Computer Ethics Essay Example

rational beings. Kant divided this ethical school into two categorical imperatives: 1) only act according to moral rules that can also be willed as universal moral laws; 2) treat oneself and others as ends in themselves, rather than merely means to an end. Utilitarianism posits that an action is deemed good if it brings benefits to someone while bad if it causes harm. This ethical belief can be further categorized into Act Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism. Act Utilitarianism considers an action good if its overall effect generates more happiness than unhappiness.Conversely, Rule Utilitarianism posits that the adoption of a moral rule universally followed would lead to a higher level of overall happiness. Social contract theory, developed by philosophers such as John Rails, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, argues that society must establish a system of moral rules based on a mutually agreed upon contract to exist and maintain order. This theory has greatly influenced modern government and societal law. In contrast to utilitarian theories, Virtue Ethics focuses on the character (virtue) of the moral agent rather than relying solely on rules or social context to determine right and wrong actions. The origins of virtue ethics can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle's work in ancient Greek philosophy.

In the realm of computer ethics, information ethics is a branch of philosophical ethics founded by Lucian Floridi that explores the conceptual foundations in this field. Professor Walter Manner from Boston University coined the term "computer ethics" in the 1960s and it has gradually become integrated into professional development programs within academic settings. The concept of computer ethics originated with Norbert Wiener in 1950; he was

an MIT professor and inventor of the "cybernetics" information feedback system.His book "The Human Use of Human Beings" established the foundations of computer ethics, earning him the title of father of computer ethics. In 1966, Joseph Whizz-bang, an MIT professor, developed ELISE - a program utilizing natural language processing to function as a psychotherapist. This program utilized pattern matching rules and asked open-ended questions to patients in order to determine appropriate responses. The same year witnessed the world's first computer crime when a programmer manipulated code to avoid overdrawing his bank account. This incident highlighted the necessity for an ethical code for computers to prevent similar actions in the future.

During the 1970s, Don Parker played a crucial role in formulating the initial code of ethics for computer technology as an author specializing in computer crimes. Concurrently, Walter Manner recognized how complex ethical decisions became with computers involved and advocated for a dedicated branch of ethics focused on addressing these concerns. It was during this period that the term "Computer ethics" was coined and gained popularity.

Furthermore, the ACM (Association of Computing Machinery) established a professional code of ethics which led to new privacy and computer crime laws being implemented in both United States and Europe.In 1976, Joseph Whizz-bang authored "Computer power and Human reason," discussing the societal benefits of artificial intelligence. However, he cautioned against relying too heavily on AI for critical decisions due to its lack of human qualities such as wisdom. Whizz-bang emphasized the difference between deciding and choosing, stating that decision-making involves computation while choices are unique to humans.

During the same year, Babe Monstrosity, a Computer Science professor at the City College of

New York, wrote an article titled "On approaches to the study of social issues in computing." This article addressed biases in research related to social aspects of computing.

In 1978, the Federal Privacy Act was passed. This act significantly limited government access to bank records.

Also in 1978, Terrible Ward Benumb developed the first-ever curriculum for a university course on computer ethics. He served as Professor of Philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University and Director of their Research Center on Computing and Society. As part of his efforts to maintain student interest in computer ethics, he initiated an essay contest focused on this topic.In 1985, James Moor, a Philosophy professor at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, published an essay titled "What is Computer Ethics" and Deborah Johnson, a Professor of Applied Ethics and Chair of the Department of Science, Technology, and Society at the University of Virginia's School of Engineering and Applied Sciences successfully published the first major computer ethics textbook. This was also the year when he released a renowned journal called "Computers and Ethics". The Small Business Computer Security and Education act was passed to inform Congress about computer crimes against small businesses. In this essay, Moor discusses computer ethics, which involve identifying policy gaps created by computers, clarifying conceptual confusion, creating guidelines for computer technology usage, and providing ethical justifications for these policies.

During the same year (1985), Robert Huffman introduced the term "information ethics," while the Computer Matching and Privacy Act was implemented to limit the government's ability to identify debtors through programs. The combination of computers with telecommunications, internet, and other media raised various ethical issues at that time.

In 1992 ACM adopted a

Code of Ethics consisting of 24 statements outlining personal responsibility for computing professionals. Three years later (1995), Gordian Cassocks proposed that computer ethics could become a global ethical system that replaces traditional ethics entirely.In 1999, Deborah Johnson argued against the idea that computer ethics would evolve and instead proposed that it would present a slight variation of our existing ethical framework. CHAPTER 2: CODES OF ETHICS IN COMPUTER INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY mandates Information Technology managers to establish ethical standards for their organization. There are numerous published ethical codes available that can be tailored for any organization. A code of ethics serves as a tool to create a unified ethical framework for a large group of individuals. Below are four notable examples of Code of Ethics for IT professionals, along with their respective principles:

1.RFC 1087 (1989) - In January 1989, the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) defined certain activities within the IT field as unethical and unacceptable. These activities include:
- Attempting unauthorized access to Internet resources.
- Disrupting the intended use of the Internet.
- Compromising the integrity of computer-based information.
- Violating user privacy.

2.The Code of Fair Information Practices, established by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1973, is based on five principles outlining requirements for record-keeping systems:
- Secret personal data record-keeping systems should not exist.
- Individuals have the right to access information about themselves and understand its usage.- The rights of individuals include the ability to prevent unauthorized use or sharing of their information, especially if it was initially obtained for a specific purpose. Additionally, individuals have the right to rectify any inaccuracies in their personal data records.

It is important for there to be a

mechanism in place that allows individuals to correct or modify identifiable information records. Any organization responsible for creating, maintaining, using, or distributing personal data must ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data while also taking precautions against its misuse (Harris, 2003).

In 1992, the Computer Ethics Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting ethical technology practices, established the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics.These rules provide guidance for computer ethics:

1. Do not use a computer to harm others.

2. Do not interfere with other people's computer work.

3. Do not invade the privacy of other people's computer files.

4. Do not use a computer to steal.

5. Do not use a computer to spread false information.

6. Do not copy or use proprietary software without payment.

7. Do not access other people's computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.

8. Do not claim someone else's intellectual output as your own.

9. < p ALIGN= "JUSTIFY" > Consider the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing.< / P >

According to the Computer Ethics Institute (1992), it is essential to always utilize computers in ways that demonstrate consideration and respect for others. SIS, an organization dedicated to certifying computer security professionals, has established a Code of Ethics that emphasizes several principles. These principles include acting honestly, justly, responsibly, and within legal boundaries while also prioritizing societal well-being.The code emphasizes the importance of professionals diligently working, providing competent services, and contributing to the advancement of the security profession. It recognizes that teaching, mentoring,

and certification play a valuable role in promoting research growth. Additionally, it highlights the significance of discouraging unsafe practices and maintaining the integrity of public infrastructures. Professionals are expected to comply with contracts, offer prudent advice, and only accept jobs they are qualified for. It is crucial for security professionals to stay updated on their skills while avoiding activities that could harm others' reputation (Harris, 2003).

In Chapter 3 titled "Examples in Computer Ethics," various issues and problems in this field are explored. One such topic is the use of computers in workplaces. Computers possess great versatility but have the potential to replace human workers due to their constant availability for work without rest or vacation time (adapted from Harris, 2003). In industries such as banking, automotive, telecommunications, typing, design security, and manufacturing; computers have proven to be more efficient than humans. Consequently, strong economic incentives exist for these industries to substitute human workers with computerized devices. Even professionals like doctors, lawyers teachers accountants psychologists have discovered that computers can effectively fulfill many traditional duties.The computer industry has not only created new job roles like hardware engineers, software engineers, systems analysts, webmasters, and information technology specialists but also significantly changed existing jobs due to technological advancements. For instance, airline pilots and workers in the food service or manufacturing sectors still hold their positions but heavily rely on computer systems for their tasks. While some job losses are expected as information technology is integrated into various fields, it is predicted that more jobs will be created in the long term. In the workplace itself, computers have both positive and negative implications. On one hand, they can make

workers passive observers and button pushers instead of active participants. However, on the other hand, computers have also opened up new employment opportunities that require advanced skills such as computer-assisted drafting and keyhole surgery.

Computer crime is a significant concern within Computer Ethics. Ensuring computer security has become an urgent issue due to the prevalence of computer viruses and remote hackers. The text explores computer security which includes physical hardware security and logical security. Logical security encompasses aspects such as privacy, confidentiality, integrity, unimpaired service, consistency, and controlling access to resources.The text discusses the presence of programmed threats such as viruses and worms that can infiltrate programs and spread through networks. It also highlights different types of computer threats like Trojan horses, logic bombs, and memory-damaging bacteria or rabbits. These threats often originate from trusted individuals who have access to the computer system, necessitating consideration of their actions in terms of computer security.

Furthermore, privacy has become a major concern in computer ethics with regards to large databases containing personal information maintained by the US government. To address this issue, proposals were made for assigning a personal identification number to every citizen and consolidating all government data under this ID number. However, public opposition led Congress to abandon the plan. As a result, committees for privacy legislation were established by the US President.

In the early 20th century, significant computer privacy laws were enacted to protect privacy in the digital age. The convenience and efficiency of computers and networks allow for various activities involving gathering, storing, searching, comparing retrieving, and sharing personal and sensitive information such as medical records. Privacy concerns have emerged due to the growth and

centralization of the internet as well as advancements in user-friendliness and processing power. These concerns encompass data mining, data matching, and tracking online click trails.Anonymity and privacy on the internet are often discussed together because they offer similar benefits. Anonymity can protect individuals who participate in discussions about sensitive topics or seek medical or psychological counseling. Both anonymity and privacy on the internet uphold human values such as security, mental health, self-fulfillment, and peace of mind. However, this same anonymity and privacy can be misused for negative purposes online, including money laundering, drug trading, terrorism, and targeting vulnerable individuals.

In terms of computer ethics, Richard Stableman presents a controversial viewpoint regarding intellectual property ownership related to software. He argues that all software should be freely available for copying, studying, and modifying. Opponents argue that the absence of license fees or sales to recover investment costs may discourage software companies and programmers from developing software. The software industry is a significant sector of the economy and suffers billions of dollars in losses each year due to illegal copying.

Some individuals believe that while it should be permissible to own software, casually copying personally obtained programs for friends should also be allowed. Ownership of software includes copyrights, trade secrets, and patents.The issue of patenting computer algorithms is currently highly controversial as it grants exclusive rights, allowing owners to prevent others from using mathematical formulas in the algorithm. This has caused anger among mathematicians and scientists who argue that algorithm patents effectively remove parts of mathematics from the public domain and impede scientific progress. Additionally, conducting a costly and time-consuming "patent search" to ensure that new programs do not infringe

on any software patents becomes a barrier for competition and reduces the variety of available software programs, as only large companies with significant budgets can afford such searches. Computer professionals, who possess specialized knowledge and often hold influential positions in the community, have a responsibility to exercise their power responsibly. They engage in various professional relationships, including employer-employee, client-professional, professional-professional, and society-professional. These relationships involve different interests that may occasionally conflict. Responsible computer professionals are aware of potential conflicts of interest and strive to avoid them.To support computer professionals in understanding and managing their ethical responsibilities, major professional organizations in the US like ACM and IEEE have implemented codes of ethics, curriculum guidelines, and accreditation requirements. An example is "Curriculum 1991," which was adopted by a Joint Curriculum Task Force consisting of ACM and IEEE in 1991. These guidelines recommend that undergraduate education in computer science should include a substantial focus on computer ethics. With globalization, computer ethics has evolved into a broader field called "global information ethics." The connectivity provided by networks such as the Internet and world-wide-web has connected people from all over the world. In her paper titled "The Computer Revolution and the Problem of Global Ethics," Crystal Gordian-Cassocks states that current global efforts to establish universally accepted standards of conduct and uphold human values are unparalleled. This shift goes beyond geographical boundaries, religions, and cultures, making it one of history's most significant societal advancements. However, this presents challenges when it comes to issues like global legislation. For example, individuals in America may realize that their local laws protecting freedom of speech online do not apply outside their own borders.Determining jurisdiction and

legal governance becomes increasingly complex when multiple countries are involved in matters such as freedom of speech, controlling pornography, protecting intellectual property rights, or invading privacy. In this scenario, imagine a European citizen engaging in internet transactions with someone from a distant country only for that nation's government to consider those activities illegal. The question arises: would the European citizen be subject to the jurisdiction of courts in a faraway land in such cases?

Furthermore, advancements in technology are bringing us closer to achieving electronic privacy and security measures that can facilitate secure international business transactions on the internet. Once fully developed and implemented, this technology is expected to lead to a significant increase in global cyber business. Consequently, nations with existing technological infrastructure may experience rapid economic growth while others might lag behind.

The implications of this rapid growth extend beyond just political and economic concerns. Will instances of "fraud" occur across different regions? Could wealthy nations further widen the already substantial wealth gap between the rich and poor? Is it possible for political and military conflicts to arise as a consequence?Additionally, if individuals of high socioeconomic status and those experiencing poverty are both able to affordably connect to the global information network - this includes impoverished individuals residing in ghettos and underprivileged countries classified as "third world" - almost every individual on the planet will have unparalleled access to unbiased news, texts, documents, artwork from esteemed libraries and museums, as well as a deep understanding of various cultural practices pertaining to politics, religion, and society.