Chapter 8 - Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

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According to Erik Erikson, the psychosocial stage that characterizes early childhood is:

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a. initiative versus guilt.

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According to Erik Erikson, the "great governor" of initiative is:

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a. conscience.

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In Erikson's portrait of early childhood, the young child clearly has begun to develop _____, which is the representation of self, the substance and content of self-conceptions.

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c. self-understanding

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Four-year-old Harlan says "I'm always happy!" Researchers suggest that Harlan, like other kids his own age, have self-descriptions that are typically:

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d. unrealistically positive.

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_____ especially plays a key role in children's ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others. It is an important component of executive function.

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b. Emotion regulation

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Hans feels ashamed when his parents say "You should feel bad about biting your sister!" To experience a _____ emotion like shame, Hans must be able to refer to himself as distinct from others.

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b. self-conscious

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Self-conscious emotions do not appear to develop until self-awareness appears at approximately _____.

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d. 15 to 18 months of age

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When Brianna is upset her mother facilitates open discussion about why she is upset and helps her figure out how to deal with the negative emotions. Therefore, Brianna's mother takes an _____ approach to parenting.

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c. emotion-coaching

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_____ parents interact with their children in a less rejecting manner, use more scaffolding and praise, and are more nurturant than are emotion-dismissing parents.

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c. Emotion-coaching

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The children of _____ parents are better at soothing themselves when they get upset, more effective in regulating their negative affect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behavior problems than the children of emotion-dismissing parents.

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a. emotion-coaching

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Developmental psychologists would describe Jennifer as an "emotion-dismissing" parent to her son. Which of the following types of behavior is Jennifer MOST likely to engage in?

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b. She ignores her child when he cries.

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Barbara monitors her children's emotions, views their negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, and assists her children in labeling their emotions. She is an:

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c. emotion-coaching parent.

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Marjorie chooses to deny, ignore, or change the negative emotions of her children. She is an:

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c. emotion-dismissing parent.

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_____ development involves the development of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people.

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c. Moral

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According to Freud, the moral element of the personality is called the _____.

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d. superego

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Feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development provided by _____ theory.

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d. Freud's psychoanalytic

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According to Freud, to reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affection, children identify with parents, internalizing their standards of right and wrong, and thus form the:

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c. superego.

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_____ is responding to another person's feelings with an emotion that echoes the other's feelings.

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b. Empathy

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When her mother asks Selena why she feels so sad, Selena says it is because her best friend just lost her puppy. Selena is exhibiting:

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b. empathy.

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The ability to discern another's inner psychological state is known as:

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c. perspective taking.

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Which of the following is the first stage of Piaget's theory of moral development?

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c. Heteronomous morality

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From about _____ years of age, children display heteronomous morality.

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b. 4 to 7

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According to Piaget's theory, from _____ years of age, children are in a transition showing some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and some stages of the second stage, autonomous morality.

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a. 7 to 10

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From about _____, children show autonomous morality. .

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c. 10 years of age and older

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Jerome, 6, and Hani, 10, get up early on Saturday morning and decide to make "breakfast in bed" for their mother. While reaching for the bed tray in the back of the hall cabinet, they accidentally break one of their mother's favorite porcelain dolls. Jerome knows that he's going to get into "big trouble."

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Hani tells him not to worry because Mom would understand that it was an accident. In what stage would Jean Piaget categorize the moral reasoning of Jerome and Hani? b. Jerome—heteronomous morality; Hani—autonomous morality

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Because young children are _____, they judge the rightness or goodness of behavior by considering its consequences, not the intentions of the actor.

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b. heteronomous moralists

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Julie believes that Jason's accidental act of breaking 12 plates is worse than Peter intentionally breaking two plates. Julie can be best described as a(n) _____.

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d. heteronomous moralist

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Dante is a 10-year-old who likes to play soccer during recess. One day a friend teaches him a different set of rules about the game that Dante accepts. He now plays soccer in a new way. Dante is in which stage of moral development?

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a. Autonomous morality

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Katrina becomes extremely upset when her brother tries to change the rules of their game, yelling, "You can't do that! You can't change rules!" Katrina is exhibiting which of the following types of moral reasoning?

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b. Heteronomous morality

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As children develop into moral autonomists:

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d. intentions become more important than consequences.

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Older children, who are _____, recognize that punishment occurs only if someone witnesses the wrongdoing and that even then, punishment is not inevitable.

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a. moral autonomists

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Young children tend to believe that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately. This indicates a belief in the concept of:

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a. immanent justice.

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Piaget concluded that the changes in moral reasoning in children come about through:

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d. the mutual give-and-take of peer relations.

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According to Jean Piaget, parent-child relations are less likely to advance moral reasoning than peer relations because:

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c. parents take an authoritative approach to handing down the rules.

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Social cognitive theory provides several important principles to help us understand moral behavior of children. Which one of the following is NOT one of those principles?

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c. Punishment will always increase modeling of moral behavior.

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Which of the following approaches holds that the processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior?

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c. The behavioral and social cognitive approach

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Twice each month, Gini helps to serve dinner at the "Community Table," a program that assists homeless people in the town. She brings her two children, ages 9 and 11, with her and talks to them about the need

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to share time, food, and kindness with others who are less fortunate. Social cognitive theorists would say that Gini's children: a. are likely to develop moral behavior that includes helping others.

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_____ refers to an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves an integration of all three components of moral development, namely, moral thought, feeling, and behavior.

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d. Conscience

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In Thompson's view, young children are moral _____, striving to understand what is moral.

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a. apprentices

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Among the most important aspects of the relationship between parents and children that contribute to children's moral development are relational quality, parental discipline, proactive strategies, and _____.

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c. conversational dialogue

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Nicola tries to take steps to avert potential misbehavior by her children before it takes place. The moment she sees that her 4-year old daughter is going to have a meltdown, she distracts her with a favorite activity.

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She has regular talks with her 10-year old son where she tries to impart her cherished values to him and indicates what is expected of him as he grows older. Nicola is: d. proactive in her approach to her children's moral development.

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Gender _____ involves a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male or female.

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c. identity

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Sets of expectations that prescribe how females and males should think, act, and feel are known as gender:

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a. roles.

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Most children know whether they are physically a girl or boy by about _____ years of age.

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b. 2½

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Gender _____ refers to acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

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c. typing

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Michael, age 4, loves playing with toy cars and airplanes, and his idea of play involves wrestling and pushing his friends. Melanie, also 4, loves playing with her dolls and doll house,

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and her idea of play is to have a tea party with her dolls and friends. Both are exhibiting: b. sex-typed behavior.

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Low levels of _____ in the female embryo allow the normal development of female sex organs.

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d. androgens

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Gonads are:

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b. ovaries in females and testes in men.

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_____ promote the development of female physical sex characteristics.

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b. Estrogens

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_____ promote the development of male physical sex characteristics.

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a. Androgens

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Which of the following hormones is an androgen?

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a. Testosterone

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Which of the following hormones is an estrogen?

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d. Estradiol

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_____ psychologists propose that men have gradually changed over time to have dispositions that favor competition and risk-taking.

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b. Evolutionary

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According to evolutionary psychologists, natural selection should favor females who chose:

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c. ambitious mates who could provide their children with resources and protection.

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Psychological evolutionary theories of gender differences fail to take into account:

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a. cultural and individual variations in gender differences.

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The primary social theories of gender include all of the following EXCEPT:

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a. evolutionary psychology view.

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The social role theory suggests that:

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a. the social hierarchy and division of labor are important causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurturing.

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According to the UNICEF (2011), in most cultures around the world:

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b. women have less power and status than men, and they control fewer resources.

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This theory of gender stems from the view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

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a. Psychoanalytic theory of gender

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According to Freud, at which age does the child renounce the sexual attraction he/she feels toward the parent of the opposite sex because of anxious feelings?

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c. 5 or 6 years of age

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The psychoanalytic theory of gender stems from Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent. Which of the following describes this condition in girls?

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b. Electra complex

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According to Freud, preschool boys develop a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent in a process called the _____.

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a. Oedipus complex

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Karen is often praised for gender typical behavior. Her parents make statements like "Karen you are such a good girl when you play with your doll!" Gender researchers would use this as support for what theory of gender development?

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b. Social cognitive theory

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Which of the following statements is true about parental influences on children's gender development?

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d. Fathers show more attention to sons than to daughters.

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Who among the following is MOST likely to be rejected by peers on the basis of gender roles?

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b. A little boy playing with a doll

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Around the age of _____, children already show a preference to spend time with same-sex playmates.

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a. three

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Children between the ages of 4 and 12 usually prefer to play in groups that are made up of:

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b. the same sex as theirs.

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In the context of the size of same-sex groups of children, from about 5 years of age onward:

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a. boys are more likely to associate together in larger clusters than girls are.

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Girls are more likely to engage in "_____," in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner.

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a. collaborative discourse

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A _____ is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guide an individual's perceptions.

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b. schema

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A gender _____ organizes the world in terms of female and male.

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d. schema

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Children are internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing _____.

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b. schemas

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Bit by bit, children pick up what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture, and develop gender _____ that shape how they perceive the world and what they remember.

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c. schemas

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Which of the following fuels gender typing?

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a. Gender schemas

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Suzie, 3, has to eat everything on her plate at dinner or her father punishes her by sending her to bed without dinner the next day. Suzie also has strict schedules for playing, television,

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and studying, and any disobedience leads to spanking and punishments. Suzie's father is most likely a(n): a. authoritarian parent.

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When asked to describe his parenting style, Juan stated, "In my house, my word is the law." Juan is probably a(n):

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a. authoritarian parent.

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A parent who uses a restrictive, punitive style to control the behavior of their children is a(n):

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a. authoritarian parent.

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Lucy frequently spanks her child, enforces rigid household rules, and exhibits rage toward her child when those rules are broken. Lucy is most likely a(n) _____.

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a. authoritarian parent.

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A parent who encourages his/her children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions is a(n):

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b. authoritative parent.

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Logan is a warm and loving parent, but he also has high expectations of his kids. As he encourages independent and age-appropriate behavior from his children, Baumarind would classify him as a:

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b. authoritative parent.

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Ursula is allowed to set her own schedules for playtime and for studying. Her mother drives her to her ballet classes and soccer practice. However,

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Ursula needs to keep her grades up and must go to bed early on most weeknights. Ursula's mom is most likely a(n): b. authoritative parent.

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Which parenting style is demanding and controlling, while also being rejecting and unresponsive?

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a. Authoritarian

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According to Baumarind, a parent who is very uninvolved in a child's life, showing neither responsiveness nor control, is displaying a _____ parenting style.

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d. neglectful

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According to Baumarind, a parent who is highly involved with his/her children but places few demands or controls on them is displaying a ____ parenting style.

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c. indulgent

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Josh's mother makes his favorite food—burgers, fries, and pizza—every night for dinner. His mother lets Josh play as much as he wants to, study only when he feels like it, and imposes no fixed bedtime. Josh's mom is most likely a(n):

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c. indulgent parent.

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Bernard just brought home his report card and placed it on the television set. Bernard told his dad that he was required to bring the card back to school tomorrow with the signature of one of his parents. Bernard's dad told him to move out of the way because he could not see the TV set.

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The next morning, Bernard found his report card where he left it, unsigned. He signed his dad's name and put it in his backpack. Bernard's dad is most likely a(n): d. neglectful parent.

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Misha has been sent to his room for hitting his baby sister. His mother will come in and talk to him about why he cannot treat his sister this way and about other, more acceptable ways for him to express his anger. Which parenting style does this exemplify?

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b. Authoritative

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In which parenting style do parents show pleasure and support in response to children's constructive behavior?

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b. Authoritative

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Which parenting style could lead to social incompetence, truancy, and delinquency in children?

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d. Neglectful

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Which parenting style leads to egocentric, domineering, and noncompliant behavior in children?

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c. Indulgent

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Which parenting style is demanding and controlling, while also being accepting and responsive?

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c. Authoritative

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Which parenting style is undemanding and uncontrolling, but is also rejecting, and unresponsive?

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d. Neglectful

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Which parenting style is undemanding and uncontrolling, while also being accepting and responsive?

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b. Indulgent

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Research conducted by Ruth Chao suggests that:

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a. the high control of Asian parents is best conceptualized as "training" and is distinct from the domineering control characteristic of an authoritarian style of parenting.

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A national survey of U.S. parents with 3- and 4-year-old children found that _____ percent of parents reported spanking their children frequently.

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b. 26

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In a recent national survey of U.S. parents with 3- to 4-year-old children, about _____ percent reported that they frequently yelled at their children.

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d. 67

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Which of the following countries has the most favorable attitude toward corporal punishment?

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d. The United States

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According to a cross-cultural survey, in which of the following countries are adults most likely to remember that their parents used corporal punishment?

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b. South Korea

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Research linking corporal punishment and child behavior has been associated with all of the following EXCEPT:

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c. higher levels of moral internalization.

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Which of the following is an effective way of handling a child's misbehavior, according to most child psychologists?

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b. Time out, in which the child is removed from a setting that offers positive reinforcement

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Four-year old Becky has just hit her sister, again. What should Becky's mom do? Most developmental psychologists would suggest:

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b. explaining to Becky that "hitting hurts"; she is old enough to understand the consequences of her behavior for others.

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Tom and Katie have recently split up, but for the benefit of their child they attempt to provide one another support in jointly raising their child. This is an example of:

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d. coparenting.

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In 2009, approximately 702,000 U.S. children were found to be victims of child abuse at least once during that year. _____ of these children were abused by their parent(s).

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d. Eighty-one percent

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Whereas the public and many professionals use the term child abuse to refer to both abuse and neglect, developmentalists increasingly use the term _____.

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b. child maltreatment

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Punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, and shaking a child constitutes:

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d. physical abuse.

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Damian's parents fail to provide his basic needs; he is often unfed and dirty when he gets to school. This constitutes:

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c. child neglect.

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Nine-year-old Tadako's uncle has been taking pictures of her naked and selling them on the Internet. This constitutes:

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b. sexual abuse

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About _____ of parents who were abused themselves when they were young go on to abuse their own children.

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c. one-third

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According to a study, maltreated young children in foster care were _____ than middle-SES young children living with their birth family.

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c. more likely to show abnormal stress hormone levels

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Laurie Kramer, who has conducted a number of research studies on siblings, says that:

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d. not intervening and letting sibling conflict escalate are not good strategies.

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Which of the following is true of the characteristics of sibling relationships as described by Judy Dunn?

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c. There is considerable variation in sibling relationships.

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Firstborn and only children are alike in that both are _____ than later-born children.

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d. more achievement-oriented

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Why do more and more researchers think that birth-order influences on child development have been emphasized too strongly?

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d. Birth order itself shows limited ability to predict behavior when all of the factors that influence behavior are considered.

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Which of the following countries has the highest percentage of single-parent families?

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d. Sweden

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Which of the following is true of how parents' work affects the development of their children?

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a. The nature of the parents' work is a more important determinant of children's development.

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Maribel works as a housekeeper at a hotel. She has no autonomy in her work, works long hours, and feels quite stressed by her job. Kim is a lawyer who works long hours but has control over her work and a great office environment. Anne Crouter would say that:

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b. Maribel's children are likely to experience less effective parenting than Kim's children.

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It is estimated that approximately _____ percent of children born to married parents in the United States will experience their parents' divorce.

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b. 40

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Which of the following is true of children in divorced families?

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a. A majority of children in divorced families do not have significant adjustment problems.

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Following divorce, custodial mothers experience the loss of about _____ percent of their pre-divorce income.

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c. 25 to 50

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Approximately _____ percent of lesbians are parents.

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b. 20

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Approximately _____ percent of gay men are parents.

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a. 10

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Bernice was raised by two lesbian mothers, whereas Jessica was raised by a heterosexual couple. According to research, it is MOST likely that:

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b. Bernice and Jessica are the same with regard to popularity and mental health.

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The overwhelming majority of children from gay or lesbian families:

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b. have a heterosexual orientation.

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Carl and Tulip are getting a divorce and want to know how they can best communicate the news to their young children. Ellen Galinsky and Judy David would suggest that:

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d. the children be told that they are not the cause of the separation.

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In general in the United States, African American and Latino family orientations differ from White family orientations in that:

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b. the extended family plays a greater role in African American and Latino families.

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Cultural changes that occur when one culture comes in contact with another is known as _____.

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b. acculturation

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Working-class and low-income families are more likely to practice a(n) _____ parenting style.

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a. authoritarian

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What does a child get from peers that he/she typically cannot get from siblings?

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c. An idea of how the child compares with other children the same age

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Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson considered play to be valuable because:

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a. it helps the child master anxieties and conflicts.

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Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky considered play to be valuable because:

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b. it advances the child's cognitive development.

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Which statement best summarizes Daniel Berlyne's views about children's play?

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d. Children use play as a way to explore new things and as a way to satisfy their natural curiosity about the world.

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_____ play, which can be engaged in throughout life, involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports.

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b. Practice

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Which of the following statements about practice play is true?

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d. Practice play can be engaged in throughout life.

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Which type of play increases dramatically during the preschool years?

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c. Social play

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_____ play occurs when children engage in the self-regulated creation of a product or a solution.

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a. Constructive

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Which of the following refers to activities engaged in for pleasure that include rules and often involve competition with one or more individuals?

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d. Games

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Children's Saturday morning cartoons show about _____ violent acts per hour.

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d. 25

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Steuer, Applefield, and Smith conducted an experiment where preschool children were randomly assigned to two groups. One group watched cartoons containing violence, and the other group watched cartoons with the violence removed. During a free-play session, the children who watched the

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cartoons containing violence showed more aggression than children who watched the nonviolent cartoons. What conclusion was drawn from this study? d. Exposure to TV violence caused aggression in children in this investigation.

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Children's shows like Sesame Street are:

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a. good at teaching prosocial skills.

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This theorist stated that the psychological stage of childhood was "initiative versus guilt."

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Answer: Erik Erikson

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This theorist suggested that children internalize their parents' standards of right and wrong in order to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment.

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Answer: Sigmund Freud

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This theorist proposed that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women in societies where women have less power and status than men and control fewer resources.

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Answer: Alice Eagly

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This theorist has proposed four classifications of parenting involving combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand and demand and control on the other.

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Answer: Diana Baumrind

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This theorist, a leading expert on sibling relationships, described three important characteristics of sibling relationships: emotional stability, familiarity and intimacy, and variation.

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Answer: Judy Dunn

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Parents who monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, and assist children in labeling their emotions.

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Answer: Emotion-coaching parents

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According to Jean Piaget, this is the first stage of moral development where children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world.

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Answer: Heteronomous morality

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This theory states that children's gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.

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Answer: Social cognitive theory of gender

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Tobias's parents are very demanding and show little warmth. They have a "My way or the highway" kind of approach to parenting. What parenting style are they displaying?

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Answer: Authoritarian

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A parenting technique for handling misbehavior in children. It is characterized by removing the child from a setting that offers positive reinforcement.

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Answer: Time out

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The support that parents provide one another in jointly raising a child.

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Answer: Coparenting

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A kind of play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports.

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Answer: Practice play

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Explain Eric Erikson's stage of initiative versus guilt. Provide an example of initiative and an example of guilt as it is used by Erikson. Answer: In Eric Erikson's first psychosocial developmental stage, initiative versus guilt, children are learning to use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language

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skills to make things happen. In essence, they exuberantly move into a wider social world. If they are not permitted to explore their world or if they face disappointment consistently, they will develop guilt

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Young children's self-descriptions are typically unrealistically positive. Why is that? Answer: Young children's self-descriptions are typically unrealistically positive because they do not yet distinguish between their desired competence and their actual competence; tend to confuse ability

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and effort, thinking that differences in ability can be changed as easily as can differences in effort; do not engage in spontaneous social comparison of their abilities with those of others; and tend to compare their present abilities with what they could do at an earlier age, by which they usually look quite good.

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Define self-conscious emotions and provide two examples. What are the two criteria necessary for children to experience self-conscious emotions? Answer: Self-conscious emotions are those that include the quality of an evaluation or judgment of self.

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Examples include pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt. In order for children to experience self-conscious emotions, they must (1) be able to refer to themselves and (2) be aware of themselves as distinct from others.

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What are some of the differences between emotion-coaching and emotion-dismissing parents? Answer: Depending on how they talk with their children about emotion, parents can be described as taking an emotion-coaching or an emotion-dismissing approach.

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The distinction between these approaches is most evident in the way the parent deals with the child's negative emotions anger, frustration, sadness, and so on. Emotion-coaching parents monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them

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in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions. In contrast, emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.

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Emotion-coaching parents interact with their children in a less rejecting manner, use more scaffolding and praise, and are more nurturant than are emotion-dismissing parents.

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Ellen Galinsky and Judy David developed a number of guidelines for communicating with children about divorce. Which one of these guidelines connects with the concept of emotion-coaching? Answer: Ellen Galinsky and Judy David urge parents communicating news of their divorce to their

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children to explain to them that it is normal to not feel good about what is happening and that it may take time for them to feel better, and that many other children feel this way when their parents become separated. This connects directly to how emotion-coaching parents monitor their children's emotions,

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view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions. Since the children of emotion-coaching parents are better at soothing themselves

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when they get upset, more effective in regulating their negative affect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behavior problems than the children of emotion-dismissing parents, this is a good approach to helping children cope with their parents' divorce.

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Name and briefly describe the two stages of moral reasoning in children as identified by Jean Piaget; provide an example of each. Answer: Piaget concluded that children go through two distinct stages in how they think about morality. From about 4 to 7 years of age, children display

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heteronomous morality, where children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. From 7 to 10 years of age, children are in a transition showing some features of the first stage of moral reasoning

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and some stages of the second stage, autonomous morality. From about 10 years of age and older, children show autonomous morality.

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They become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and in judging an action they consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences.

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Compare and contrast the three major social theories of gender. Which would you argue is the dominant approach today? Answer: Three main social theories of gender have been proposed—social role theory, psychoanalytic theory, and social cognitive theory.

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Alice Eagly proposed the social role theory, which states that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men. The psychoanalytic theory of gender stems from Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

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At 5 or 6 years of age, the child renounces this attraction because of anxious feelings. Subsequently, the child identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics.

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According to the social cognitive theory of gender, children's gender development occurs through observing and imitating what other people say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.

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Cultures around the world tend to give mothers and fathers different roles in parenting. Describe the different socializing strategies that mothers and fathers use in raising their children. Answer: In many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons.

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They also place more restrictions on daughters' autonomy. Fathers, on the other hand, show more attention to sons than daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons' intellectual development.

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List four characteristics that are generally associated with the firstborn child. Discuss what accounts for these differences. Answer: A recent review concluded that "firstborns are the most intelligent, achieving, and conscientious.

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Compared with later-born children, firstborn children have also been described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled. Proposed explanations for differences related to birth order usually point to variations in interactions

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with parents and siblings associated with being in a particular position in the family.

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In one study, mothers became more negative, coercive, and restraining and played less with the firstborn following the birth of a second child.

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Should parents stay in an unhappy or conflicted marriage for the sake of their children? Answer: If the stresses and disruptions in family relationships associated with an unhappy, conflict-ridden marriage that erode the well-being of children are reduced by the move to a divorced

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, single-parent family, divorce can be advantageous. However, if the diminished resources and increased risks associated with divorce also are accompanied by inept parenting and sustained or increased conflict, not only between the divorced couple but also among the parents, children, and siblings, the

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best choice for the children would be that an unhappy marriage is retained. It is difficult to determine how these "ifs"

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will play out when parents either remain together in an acrimonious marriage or become divorced.

Chapter 8 – Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

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