Chapter 12: Gender roles and Sexuality – Flashcards
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Sex and gender
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Sex: Physical characteristics that define male and female Gender: All features that society associates with or considers appropriate for men and women
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Biological sex
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Physical characteristics that define male and female e.g. women menstruate as a result of their hormonal and physical makeup and men typically have larger bones and muscle mass than women. (biological sex difference)
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Gender
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Incorporates all those features that a society associates with or considers appropriate for men and women.
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Communality
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An orientation that emphasizes connectedness and sensitivity to others, includes traits of emotionality and sensitivity to others (women are more communal, but not men)
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Agency
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An orientation toward individual action and achievement emphasizing assertiveness, action and competitiveness. Traditionally, women have been more communal and men, agentic ( men want to get things done)
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Androgyny
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A balancing or blending or communal and agentic traits. More common in post-modern age of gender role de-differentiation (it is okay for men to sad, cry/ it's okay for women to tough
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Gender similarities hypothesis
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*Males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables *There are significant mean differences on a few qualities with "overlap" Examples of differences +Females;males Verbal ability, reading, remembering object location, more nurturant, emphathic, more prone to have anxiety and depression Males;females +Spatial ability, mental rotations, mathematical ability, physical and verbal aggression, physical activity, developmental vulnerability [birth defects, learning disabilities, etc.]
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Social-role theory
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Eagly's view that gender-role stereotypes are created and maintained by differences in the roles that men and women play in society rather than being inherent in males and females.
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Infancy
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few differences between m/f newborns except obvious anatomical ones Boys somewhat more irritable Girls somewhat more alert
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Differential treatment
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Evidenced from birth, adults perceive boys as strong, large featured and coordinated and view girls as weaker, finer featured, an more awkward. "big guy" or "tiger" v. "sugar" or "sweetie Condry and Condry, 1976
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Early learning
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*They are trying to get to know the social world around them and to get to know themselves. *By one year, babies look longer [slower habituation] at a male [female] face when they hear a female[male] voice that doesn't match the face *By 24 months, they look longer [habituate slower] at males or females performing gender-inconsistent activities.
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Gender identity
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*A gender identity [I am a boy; I am a girl] by age 2 ½ to 3 yrs. *At this age, boys tend to prefer trucks and cars to play with; girls prefer dolls and soft toys.
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Beginnings of a sexual self
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-Both male babies and female babies have been observed to touch and manipulate their genital areas, to experience physical arousal, and to undergo what appear to be orgasms. -Infants feel body sensations, but they are hardly aware that their behavior is "sexual"
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Gender typing
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Children not only become aware that they are biological males or females but also acquire the motives, values, and patterns of behavior that their culture considers appropriate for members of their biological sex.
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Acquiring gender stereotypes
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By age 2 or 3 children begin to acquire the behavior patterns their culture considers appropriate for their biological sex In doing so, they also become stereotypical in their understanding of gender differences [Levy et al., 2000] when kids ages 4 to 6 asked who would do better at particular occupations...they say... Men would be more competent as mechanics and pilots; women as designers and secretaries However, older children become more flexible and less stereotypical in their gender responses...and more tolerant of those who violate gender
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Gender segregation
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During the elementary school years, boys and girls develop even stronger preferences for peers of their own sex. Separating themselves into boys' and girls' peer groups and interacting far more often with their own sex than with the other sex. Children begin to favor same-sex playmates as early as 2 ½ to 3 years of age By age 4 ½ children spend 3x more time with same-sex peers and 11x more time at age 6 ½ Boys face stronger pressure to adhere to gender role expectations than girls do One-third to one-half of women readily admit to being "tomboys" or having masculine interests Hardly any men admit to having feminine interests or being "sissies" as boys
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Freudian theory
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Gender-role behaviors are shaped early, during the phallic stage, when children harbor a strong, biologically based love for the parent of the other sex.
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Biosocial theory
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Gender-role development proposed by John Money and Anke Ehrhardth calls attention to the ways in which biological events influence the development of boys and girls. [Money and Ehrhardt, 1972] How biological events influence the development of boys and girls How social reactions to gender influence gender roles
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Critical events in gender role preference
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Influence of chromosomes and hormones XX vs. XY chromosomes Without the intervention of Y chromosome and resulting male hormones, all babies develop female internal organs and genitalia We are all females unless testosterone transforms one in prenatal life
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Evidence of biological influences
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Most societies socialize males to have argentic traits and females to have communal ones; they conclude that traditional gender roles may be a reflection of species heredity. In addition, individual differences in agency and communality may be partly genetic.
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Androgenized females
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Girls prenatally exposed to excess androgens were recognized as genetic females, underwent surgery to alter their genitals, and were then raised as girls. Many more androgenized girls were tomboys and preferred boy's toys and vigorous activities to traditionally feminine pursuits compared with other girls.
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Evidence of social labeling influences by Money and Ehrhardt's
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How a child is labeled and treated.
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Differential reinforcement
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Children are rewarded for sex-appropriate behavior and are punished for behaviors considered more appropriate for members of the other sex. Parent use differential reinforcement to teach boys how to boys and girls how to be girls, display clear preferences for male or female activities.
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Observational learning
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Children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models. Boys and girls model the behavior of boys, girls, men and women they see
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Cognitive theories
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Cognitive-developmental theory, Gender schema theory
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Cognitive-developmental theory and gender constancy by Kohlberg
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Gender role development depends on reaching specific stages of cognitive development and achievement of conservation Identity [by age 2 ½ to 3] Stability [across time] Consistency [across time and all situations [between age 5 and 7]
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Gender schema theory by Martin and Halverson
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They believe that children are intrinsically motivated to acquire values, interests, and behaviors consistent with their cognitive judgments about the self. *A cognitive theory but not so closely tied to Piagetian cognitive development and the achievement of gender constancy *Children develop basic gender identity at age 2 ½ to 3 and now have a basic gender schema *Gender schema? Organized beliefs about males and females *As children get older they continually extend and refine their gender schemas and conform their behavior to these refined.
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Childhood sexuality
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They learn a great deal about sexuality and reproduction, curious about their bodies, and begin to interact with the other sex in ways that will prepare them for dating in adolescence.
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Understanding sex and reproduction
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Children construct their own theories about sex and reproduction well before they learn the "facts of life" Piaget's cognitive development stages
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Sexual behavior in childhood
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Freud and latency? Children may be more discreet than preschoolers about their sexual exploration But...they are no less curious 2/3s of boys and ½ of girls masturbate by age 13 Many boys and girls have their first sexual attraction around age 10 probably influenced by maturation of adrenal glands *Phallic stage of psychosexual development are actively interested in their genitals and seek bodily pleasure through masturbation.
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Adhering to gender roles
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Curiously, adolescents become highly intolerant of certain role violations and stereotyped in their thinking about the proper roles of males and females in adolescence.
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Gender intensification
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Gender differences may be magnified by hormonal changes associated with puberty and increased pressure to conform to gender roles. Boys begin to see themselves as more masculine and girls emphasize their feminine side. Increase concern with conforming to gender norms.
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Attaining sexual maturity
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Forming a positive sexual identity is an important task.
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Sexual orientation (Erikson)
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That is preference for sexual partners of the same or other sex, or both. Also...same-sex attraction (to feel without acting) vs. expression (do it, act on it) Most teens assume a heterosexual orientation naturally and without much soul-searching.
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Childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) by Richard Lippa
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lack of adherence as a child to the typical gender-role norms for members of one's assigned gender group. Homosexual
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Sexual morality
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Generalization #1 [continued] Casual sex or "hooking up" is more normative in college College women express more negative feelings about it and experience more depression from it than college men Generalization #2 The double standard has decline but not disappeared over the years College students still tend to believe that a female who has had multiple partners is more immoral than a promiscuous man College males buy into the double standard more than college women Generalization #3 Today's adolescents are confused about sexual norms They receive mixed messages from various sources [parents, church, school, peers, media] For example, media implies sex is okay yet other messages address fears of STIs, pregnancy, bad reputations, etc.
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Hookup
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Is a brief sexual encounter between two people who have often just met at a party and have little expectation of forming a romantic relationship.
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Double standard
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Behavior that is viewed as appropriate for makes is considered inappropriate for females; there is one standard for males, another for females. Man gain some sexual experience but women was expected to remain a virgin until she married.
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Changes in sexual beliefs and behaviors over 50 years
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• 75% believe that sex with affection in context of committed [but not married] relationship is acceptable In 1950s...most teens viewed premarital sex as wrong 40% of boys and 12% of girls approved of premarital sex in the 1950s vs. 79% and 73% respectively in 2005 [Wells and Twenge, 2005] Casual or recreational sex is not the norm among teens; average teen waits 5 months before having sex with a romantic partner [Williams and Russell, 2013]
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Sexual behavior
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Teens are involved in more forms of sexual activity at earlier ages than teens of the past About 40% of H.S. students have ever had sex [gender difference no longer significant] By emerging adulthood [21-24 yrs] 85% have had intercourse [average age to marry is about 27] What is "having sex?" Most do not consider activities short of intercourse to be "having sex" Only 20% of college students consider oral sex to be "having sex"
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Childhood sexual abuse
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A girls aged 12 or 13 although it happens to boys, is abused repeatedly by father, stepfather, or another male relative or family friend. Most of the children did not report it. 25% of women and 16% of men report having been sexually abused at some time in their childhood No single "syndrome" characterizes abuse survivors...rather, a variety of common problems Negative emotions [anxiety, depression], low self-esteem, aggression and acting out, problems in school For many it boils down to lack of self-worth and difficulty trusting others "Rule of thirds" One-third of abuse survivors engage in sexualized behaviors [excessive interest in sex, behaving seductively, promiscuity] One-third experience PTSD [i.e. were traumatized by their experience] One-third report few or no psychological symptoms
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Sexually transmitted diseases
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Chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes, syphilis among others Chlamydia and gonorrhea have high incidence rates in teens
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Changes in gender roles
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Elderly adults were exposed to more traditional gender roles as children and adolescents Elderly women may have less education and may not have worked outside the home If they did work outside the home, fewer occupations and lower pay available to them Current cohorts of young and middle adults may act differently in their elderly years
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Parental imperative
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The requirement that mothers and fathers adopt different roles to raise children successfully. Enter into romantic relationships Especially as they become parents and seek to raise children successfully Men may need to emphasize their "masculine" qualities to protect and provide for one's family Women may need to emphasize their "feminine" qualities to nurture their children and the emotional needs of their families Even the most "egalitarian" couples tend to divide labors along traditional gender lines when they have children
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Androgyny adult
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By a balancing or blending of both agentic traits and communal traits. The androgynous person possesses both agentic and communal traits, whereas the undifferentiated individual lacks both kinds of attributes.
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Changes in sexuality
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*Males peak of sexual responsiveness is during emerging adult years [18-25] Quickly aroused, intense orgasm, refractory period of minutes before ready again Older men? Slower to arousal, slower to orgasm, longer refractory period *Women reach peak of sexual responsiveness in their 30s Capable of multiple orgasms with little or no refractory period and capacity can be retained into old age Older women may also experience
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Gender differences
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Desire can remain moderate or high well into old age. Oldest adults: 75-85 year-old men were twice as likely to be sexually active and four times as likely to express interest in sex as women the same age.
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Alex Comfort's bicycle quote
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"Old people stop having sex for the same reasons they stop riding a bicycle—general infirmity, thinking it looks ridiculous, and no bicycle." ----Alex Comfort [1974] • Infirmities and poor health can limit sexual function • Looks ridiculous? Society does not have good, healthy images of various aspects of aging and aging adults are stereotyped • No bicycle? Lack of partner or interested partner Women outlive men so fewer partners available for them
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Definition of child abuse
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Mistreating or harming a child physically, emotionally or sexually...or putting the child at serious risk of harm.
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Child maltreatment
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?A term that includes both abuse and neglect •1 in every 100 children [under age 18] in the U.S. is a victim of substantiated or verified maltreatment
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Statistics
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•Child Welfare Information Agency (2012 data) •CPS agencies investigate annually investigate millions of referrals (mostly from educators, law enforcement, and medical providers) •3.2 million children received investigations by DSS [2012] •substantiated 17.7% or 678,810 cases of abuse or neglect
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Parents as abusers
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•81.5% of all victims were maltreated by at least one parent •Most common pattern (36.6%) is female parent acting alone and 18.7% male parent acting alone •Female parents are highest perpetrators of neglect and physical abuse •Male parents are highest perpetrators of sexual abuse
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Detecting physical abuse
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•75% in primary target zone- back side, bottom, back leg, back thigh (the most injury areas) •accidents and bony prominences (knee, elbow) •Johnson (1997) two responses of child to an injury ?excited to tell--accident ?evasive---injury got by other •ER Physician Account •"goodness of fit"----explanation
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Type of abuse
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-Neglect--can create low self-esteem, learn on your own and don't have help by other -Physical -Sexual -Emotional---through your action, emotional abuse, abandoned.
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Characteristics of abusers
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• 1 child abuse in 10 has a severe psychological disorder • Abusive parent is often a single mom living in poverty, unemployed with a pileup of stressors and little respite • 30% of those abused as children grow up to abuse their own children ? Cycle of abuse most apt to be broken when: There was at least one warm, caring adult in one's childhood Close, positive marital relationship Received counseling or parenting classes • abusive mothers are often battered by their partners • Abusers are often insecure with low self-esteem • Abusers have unrealistic expectations about what children should be like or capable of doing
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Characteristics of abused
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* In some families a child is "singled out" for abuse ? In such cases, child characteristics appear to matter Child with medical problems Child with difficult temperament Child who looks or acts like an ex-spouse ? May be a combination of a high risk parent and a challenging child *Contextual factors ? High stress environment ? Little social support ? Deteriorating environment Poverty, transience, few community services available ? A "violent" society or a post-modern society with too little emphasis on children
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developmental consequences of abuse and neglect
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• Intellectual deficits and academic difficulties • Social and emotional problems ? Rejected by peers ? Poor emotional regulation Higher than average rates of fear, anxiety, depression and other psychological problems including PTSD in some cases • Attachment difficulties ? Later difficulties with peer relations ? Difficulty establishing healthy intimate relationships
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Domestic violence
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A pattern of behavior which involves the abuse by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such as marriage or cohabitation
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Elder abuse
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a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person • A core element is an "expectation of trust" towards someone providing care or some form of service • Does not include criminal activity such as home break-ins, muggings Types of maltreatment • Neglect • Physical abuse • Emotional abuse • Sexual abuse • Financial abuse [and scams by strangers such as phony lotteries, bogus contracters]
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Resiliency
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Accelerated development or "bouncing back" is known in research literature as "resiliency" [defined] -- The ability of every child to overcome adversity if important protective factors are present in one's life. Although resilience may be inherent in children, it can also be enhanced by what we do.
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Kauai study
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• Werner ; Smith [1982] followed a group of children: ? Perinatal stress ? Reared in poverty ? Parents had little education ? Exposed to parental discord or mental illness as children • One-third adjusted well over time • Two-thirds developed serious problems
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Resiliency factors
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These can be summarized with three words: • Milieu • Mentors • Message Create the milieu, enlist the mentors and frame the message properly and one can create "turning points" or "moments that matter" for children
