Articulation chapter 1-6 – Flashcards

synonym for speech sounds; aspect of language form; is rule governed

is the smallest unit of sound in a language; they do not have a meaning in and of themselves, but they can change the meaning of a word when modified. Example: /s/ in sing

a phonetic variant of phoneme in a particular language. Example: /ph, f, p/ are all allophones of the phoneme /p/; keep vs. coop /k/

The study of the production and perception of speech sounds

allophones do not occur in the same phonetic environment; occurrence is complementary or non-overlapping

allophones can occur in the same context

The study of the production and perception of speech sounds

the study of the production and perception of speech sounds

denotes speech sound errors that are rule based

terms used to describe the nature of the sound errors produced by children. Delay refers to speech sound errors that are often noted as "normal" errors found in young children as they learn to properly use sounds (lisps). Deviant refers to errors not typically observed in young children's development (lateralization of sibilants)

Tongue Height: How high or low the tongue is when you pronounce certain vowels. It can be High, Medium, or Low. Tongue Position: The position of the tongue inside your mouth. It can be Front, Middle, or Back. Lip Rounding: Position of the lips when we make the vowel sounds. Length: Duration of the vowel; sometimes known as tense or lax Stress/Unstressed

Consonants are classified by manner (stop, fricative, affricative, nasal, lateral, rhotic, and glide) and place (bilabial, labiodentals, lingua-dental, lingua-alveolar, lingua-palatal, lingua-velar, glottal)

consonantal, vocalic, sonorant, interrupted, strident, high, low, back, anterior, coronal, rounded, distributed, lateral, nasal, and voiced—the classifications Vocal Tract: consonants are made with a complete or partially constricted vocal tract

generates multisensory information—(tactile—touch and pressure; supply information to the nervous system on the nature of contact (including localization, pressure, and onset time) and direction of movement, proprioceptive—position sense, kinesthetic—movement sense, auditory—supplies information on the acoustic consequences of articulation)

focuses on describing overt and observable behaviors Example: Skinner with Operant Conditioning controlling acts by changing the consequences that occur immediately following the act (positive and negative reinforcement)

speech/language acquisition is too complex a process to be explained by environment/reinforcement alone ALSO, there is no capacity for parental/environmental reinforcement of all speech behaviors, leading to mastery of such a complex skill as speech and language Behavioral principles continue to be utilized in speech intervention

Noam Chomsky

Suggests that a combination of underlying phonological representations and surface articulation form the structure of sounds • Phonological representations are dependent on information from other linguistic levels (semantics, syntax) • Generative phonological rules could help explain substitutions, omissions, distortions, etc. • However, generative phonology has not been seen as broadly applicable to SLP

Basis of phonological process approach • Natural processes are --Universal across languages and --Used frequently by young children • Children have the same underlying representations as adults, however their surface forms (productions) are constrained temporarily by anatomy/development • Widely accepted by SLPs

refers to a collection of theories that focus on the hierarchical nature of the relationships between phonological units. • Hierarchical model; speech production is not just a line of phonemes, but is rather made up of any elements on many levels -Prosodic tier (word/foot/syllable/onset-rime/skeletal/segmental) -Segmental tier (segments/speech sounds/features) • Benefits: (1) the concept of links between the segmental and suprasegmental tiers and prosodic variables that highlight the interaction between speech sounds and other speech-language domains and (2) the view that development is progressive or addictive, which is in contrast to the negative progression suggested by a phonological process

Originally developed to describe adult languages; basic units are constraints - Markedness constraints = limitations on what can be produced - Faithfulness constraints = sounds and features that must be preserved • In development, output matches adult target by promoting faithfulness constraints and demoting markedness constraints

Refers to the quality of relative loudness within a speech sound -Sonority is dependent on voicing and openness of the vocal tract -Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP) states that phonemes with low sonority are found at syllable margins, while high sonority sounds are in the center of syllables

• Linguistic models provide descriptions of phonological systems, while psycholinguistic models provide explanations for child phonology. • Describes the distinction between underlying representations of words and their production—used to map interactions between auditory input, underlying cognitive-linguistic processes, and speech production output • What happens between the input (which is the speech signal the child hears) and output (is the speech signal (usually words) actually produced/spoken by the child)? The possible events that occur between input and output are the focus of psycholinguistic models AKA "black box approach" whereby input and output are examined to construct a mechanism. Input→black box→output • Internal representations (the basic unaltered pronunciation before any processes have had a chance to operate)/mental lexicon 'mental dictionary'

refers to the ability to perceive and process speech sounds from an acoustic waveform. • Requires isolation and segmentation of individual units • Formation of a representation to deal with irregularities (perceptual constancy)

• Some adaptation to native language occurs in utero/immediately following birth • Within days, infants can discriminate between distinct language families • By 4 mos, they can distinguish their language even from very similar languages • 6 month old infants prefer listening to words that correspond to prosody of native language • 9 month old infants prefer words that correspond to phonetic/phonotactic rules of native language

• Infants < 6-8 months demonstrate categorical perception for phonetic contrasts not in their own language • Pattern of change from 6-12 months: ability to discriminate non-native contrasts decreases

- Fussing, crying, vegetative sounds - Quasi-resonant nuclei

• 4-8 weeks: differentiated vocalizations • 8 weeks: - Comfort sounds/cooing - Vocalize in presence of others • 12 weeks: frequency of crying decreases • 16 weeks: sustained laughter • 4-6 months: babbling emerges - Fully resonant nuclei (FRN) - Bilabial production

• Systematic production errors • Occur across languages; frequency depends on structure of the native language • Whole word processes - Unstressed syllable deletion - Final consonant deletion - Reduplication - Assimilation • Segment change processes - Velar fronting - Stopping - Gliding • Systematic simplifications of a sound class • Common in normal development. Researchers have attempted to identify the age at which the pattern is typically suppressed. • Major decline in use of phonological processes between 3-4 years of age

• Dialect= "mutual intelligible forms of a language associated with a particular region, social class, or ethnic group" (p. 348, 6th Ed.) • Dialects spoken in US include: - General American English (GAE) - Southern White Standard - Appalachian English - Caribbean English - African American English (AAE) - Eastern American English - Spanish-influenced English

• 7.5% of 3-11 year old children have developmental phonological disorders. • 50-75% of children with DPD also have expressive language involvement • 10-40% show language comprehension deficits Casual Factors: impairments that impact upon structure/function of the speech and hearing mechanism

• Must have intact auditory system sensitive to speech range (500-4000 Hz). • Child must receive incoming messages and monitor own speech • Aspects of hearing loss known to affect speech perception and production: - Hearing sensitivity - Speech recognition ability - Configuration of the hearing loss - Age of onset/detection of hearing loss • Vowel errors: - Vowel substitutions - Diphthong/vowel errors - Neutralization

• Mild fluctuating hearing loss can affect speech/language development • "otitis media with effusion" • Error patterns: - Errors in nasals - Initial consonant errors - Deletion of stridency feature • With "aggressive medical treatment", most children with catch up without intervention, but up to 25% will not.

• Lips - Minor deviations do not impact articulation - Cleft lip—most develop compensatory postures • Teeth - "Malocclusion does not preclude normal articulation" • Open bite, short/narrow maxillary arch • Tongue - Ankyloglossia (tongue tie) • Frenectomies ommon - Macroglossia/microglossia - Glossectomy (partial/total) - The tongue is a very adaptable organ! • Hard palate - Defects/removals can be repaired with dental appliance - Intelligibility 94% • Soft palate - Velopharyngeal incompetence • Hypernasality • Reduced intraoral breath pressure • Nasal emission

• Subjects with misarticulations may have poorer oral sensory abilities • Oral anesthetization studies • One study found that children with poor articulation skills performed less accurately on tongue placement tasks; but improved with training.

• General/gross motor skills generally intact in children with phonological disorders • Weak or slow oral motor development can contribute to speech sound disorders

frontal or lateral tongue thrust/strong contact of tongue with teeth, inadequate lip closure, incorrect tongue posture at rest • Low muscle tone, jaw instability, poor sensory awareness • Associated with anterior production of alveolar and palatal sounds.

• Typically associated with stroke, brain injury in adults; CP in children. • Impairment to one or more neuromuscular functions: - Muscle strength - Speed of movement - Range of excursion - Accuracy of movement - Coordination of movement - Motor steadiness - Muscle tone

Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning, phoneme is the smallest unit of sound, and allophones are variations of phonemes. Phonemes do not have meaning but when combined, can form morphemes. Different combinations of phonemes can result in the usage of allophones via assimilation.

Vowels are speech sounds produced with the vocal tract. They are voiced and can be high, mid, low, front, central, or back. Distinctive features of vowels include, but are not subject to: vocalic, oral, sonorant, voiced, rounded, tense.

/g/ - voiced velar stop /d/ - voiced alveolar stop /m/ voiced bilabial nasal /r/ - voiced palatal liquid /n/ - voiced alveolar nasal /ŋ/ - voiced velar nasal /g/ & /d/ in 'good' are both voiced stops /m/, /n/, & /ŋ/ are nasals

Is the influence of sounds on one another. Anticipatory coarticulation occurs when one sound is influenced by sound coming after. Eg. "key" & "koo." Rententive coarticulation is when the production of a sound is influenced by a proceeding sound. Eg. Nasalasation of / æ/ in man.

An advantage of behaviorist theory is results through operant conditioning. A disadvantage of the behaviorist theory is that language acquisition is too complex to explain by the environment or just positive reinforcement. An advantage of linguistic models is that the phonological process of language acquisition is observable. A disadvantage of linguistic model is that the attention and underdevelopment of articulators of children before 3 is limited. An advantage of psycholinguistic theory is that attempts to account for planning and speech. A disadvantage would be that cognitive abilities vary from person to person.

Marginal, babbling, jargon

Infants can detect differences in speech sounds and cannot discriminate native sounds until 10-12 months.

Speech acquisition starts with jargon, then one word utterances, and then telegraphic stage ( two word utterances)

A) Consonants a. Early 8 [m, b, j, n, w, d, p, h] b. Middle 8 [t, ŋ, k, g, f, v, tʃ, dʒ] c. Late 8 [ʃ, θ, ð, s, z, , l, r, ʒ] B) Vowels a. Vowels are influenced by accent or dialect spoken by child b. Two aspects of vowels include: paradigmatic—refers to learning to produce vowels in isolation and syntagmatic—refers to the ability to produce sequence of vowels within syllables and words in conjunction with other phonological variables such as stress

For age 2 they would have issues with cheese [s] →dentalized spoon [sp] →/p,b/ hat (no errors) caterpillar [l]→/w/ [r]→/w/ running [r]→/w/ [ŋ]→/n/ three [r]→/w/ For Age 5 there would no errors in regards to these words. **Refer to table 3.10 in text for chart**

A) The ability to manipulate sounds within the language; and is essential for the development of reading and spelling. Those skills also affect their perception of salient auditory cues. B) PA skills a. Rhyme knowledge (judgment, detection, production) b. Blending & segmentation (syllables, phonemes) c. Manipulation (syllables, clusters, phonemes)

• Age • Gender (girls acquire speech more quickly) • Socioeconomic status • Language development • Individual variability (between individuals, within individuals)

Organically based means being born with it, this includes those children whose difficulty with speech sounds can be readily linked to an obvious etiology or cause. Some examples include: Lips, Tongue, Hard Palate, Soft Palate, Genetic Disorders, Hearing Loss, and Neuromotor Disorders (Dysarthria and Apraxia)

Classification by etiology Classification by psycholinguistic deficit Classification by symptomology

• Early Intervention→Better treatment • ability to know how to classify the different speech disorders • How to properly asses and treat the children.

• Multiple symptoms arise from same underlying disorder, important clinically for child with Down syndrome. (from slide) • Morbidity arises from medicine is another term for illness; there might be co-factors and illnesses along with a speech disorder (from text)

SSD and Language Disorders: • Many studies exist, consensus is that approximately 60% of preschool children with SSD also have some type of language disorder • More likely expressive • Prevalence of LD in preschoolers is around 7% of the population • Thus, having a SSD increases the likelihood of having a language disorder SSD and Stuttering: • Could be due to genetic etiology • Both more common in males • Both motor based problems • 20-40% of children who stutter may also have articulation problems SSD and Voice Disorders: • Links: reduced intelligibility may lead to strain on laryngeal mechanism, voice problems may lead to reduced intelligibility, practice, feedback • OR, common underlying problem, i.e., hearing loss, clefts • 47-57% of children with SSD may also have voice problems. SSD and Emotional/Psychiatric Disorders: • E.g., ADD/ADHD, anxiety disorder • SSD may lead to frustration, anxiety about communicating, OR limited communicative opportunities may lead to limited practice/feedback • Shriberg et al include a category for "psychosocial involvement"

• 20-40% of children who stutter may also have articulation disorders ; 1% of children with SSD also exhibit stuttering

SSP is often referred to as speech discrimination. A relationship between speech sound perception and production in some children with speech sound disorders appears to exist, although the precise nature of the relationship is not determined.

Otitis media b. Tongue thrusting c. Missing teeth d. Cognitive impairment e. Lower socioeconomic status k. Family history of phonological difficulties I. Removal of part of the tongue