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Political Culture

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A set of widely shared political beliefs and values. America's political culture is characterized by strong support for individual liberty, political equality, legal equality, the rule of law, and limited government

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Political Socialization

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The process by which political values are formed and passed from one generation to the next. he family is the most important agent of political socialization

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Public Opinion

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Attitudes about institutions, leaders, political issues, and events

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Political Ideology

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A cohesive set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and the role of government

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Political Efficacy

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The belief that one's political participation makes a difference

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Split-Ticket Voting

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Voting for candidates of different parties for different offices in the same election. Recent elections have witnessed a significant increase in split-ticket voting as the number of voters who identify themselves as independents increases

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Core Values

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Liberty/Freedom: Freedom of speech and religion are fundamental parts of the American political culture. People should be free to lead their lives with minimum government interference. Equality: Political Equality: All adult citizens should have equal voting rights. Legal Equality: Everyone is entitled to equal treatment before the law. Equality of Opportunity: All Americans should have a chance to succeed in life

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Mistrust of Government

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Since the 1950's, American's have become less trusting of their leaders and political institutions. This mistrust is linked to a decline in political efficacy (a belief that one's political participation really matters

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Agents of Socialization

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The Family: The family is the most important agent of political socialization. Children raised in households in which both parents strongly identify with the same political party are likely to identify with their parents' party.

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Liberal Ideology

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Supports: Political and social reform Government regulation of the economy Expanded programs for the poor, minorities, and women National health care system Abortion rights Opposes: Increased military spending Committing troops to foreign wars School Prayer

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Conservative Ideology

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Supports: Expansion of American military power Free-market solutions to economic problems Less government regulation of business School prayer Opposes: Expensive federal social and welfare programs Abortion rights National health care system

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Straw Polling

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American political leaders have a long history of trying to gauge public opinion. Early attempts included counting the size of a crowd, noting the level of audience applause, and asking random people on the street to express their opinion

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Scientific Polling

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Construct a sample or representative slice of the population. Most polls use random sampling in which every member of the population being studied must have an equal chance of being sampled. If this happens, a small sample should represent the whole population

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The Expansion of Voting Rights

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Federal laws and constitutional amendments have eliminated restrictions on the right to vote, thus dramatically expanding the American electorate. Federal laws and constitutional amendments have significantly reduced the power of individual states over a citizen's right to vote

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The Fifteenth Amendment, 1870

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Prohibited voting restrictions based on \"race, color, or previous condition of servitude

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The Nineteenth Amendment, 1920

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The 19th Amendment removed voting restrictions based on gender

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The Twenty-Third Amendment, 1961

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The 23rd Amendment gave residents of D.C. the right to vote and three electoral college votes

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The Twenty-Fourth Amendment, 1964

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Prior to 1964, a number of states used poll taxes as a means of discouraging citizens from voting (mainly minorities). The 24th Amendment outlawed the poll tax or any other tax as a qualification for voting

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The Voting Rights Act of 1965

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Prohibited any government from using voting procedures that denied a person the vote on the basis of race or color. Abolished the use of literacy requirements for anyone who had completed the sixth grade. Authorized federal registrars to protect African Americans' right to vote in Southern states and counties with histories of discrimination.

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The Twenty-Sixth Amendment, 1971

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The 26th Amendment provided that the minimum age for voting in any election cannot be less than 18 years. Note that any state may set a minimum voting age of less than 18

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Gender voting influence

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Women vote at a higher percentages than men. Women generally favor Democrats, while men generally favor Republicans. Known as the 'gender gap', it first appeared in 1980

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Religion voting influence

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Jews and Catholics are more likely to vote than Protestants. Historically, a majority or Protestants have supported Republicans, while a majority of Jewish and Catholic voters have supported Democrats

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Race voting influence

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Whites tend to have higher turnout rates than minorities. It is important to note that when the effects of income and education are eliminated, black citizens vote at a higher rate than white citizens. The presidency of FDR witnessed a major shift of African American voters from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party. The overwhelming majority of African Americans now support Democratic candidates

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Cross-Pressures

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Voters belong to more than one group and it is important to note that anything that produces cross-pressures reduces voter turnout

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Factors That Decrease Voter Turnout

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Voter Registration Frequent Elections Weekday & Non-holiday Voting

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Congressional Redistricting

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The reallocation of the number of representatives each state has in the House of Representatives

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Gerrymandering

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The legislative process by which the majority party in each state legislature redraws congressional districts to ensure the maximum number of seats for its candidates

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Incumbent

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An officeholder who is seeking reelection. Incumbency is the single most important factor in determining the outcome of congressional elections

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Franking Privilege

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The right of members of Congress to mail newsletters to the constituents at the government's expense

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Standing Committees

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Permanent subject-matter congressional committees that handle legislation and oversee the bureaucracy

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Conference Committees

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Temporary bodies that are formed to resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill

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House Rules Committee

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Sets the guidelines for floor debate. It gives each bill a rule that places the bill on the legislative calendar, limits time for debate, and determines the type of amendments that will be allowed.

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House Ways & Means Committee

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House committee that handles tax bills.

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Seniority

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Unwritten rule in both houses of Congress reserving committee chairs to members of the committee with the longest records of continuous service

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Filibuster

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A way of delaying or preventing action on a bill by using long speeches and unlimited debate to \"talk a bill to death.\"

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Cloture

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A Senate motion to end a filibuster. Requires a 3/5 vote

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Logrolling

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Tactic of mutual aid and vote trading among legislators

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Oversight

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Congressional review of the activities of an executive agency, department, or office

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Delegate Role of Representation

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When members of Congress cast votes based on the wishes of their constituents

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Reasons Why the Framers Created a Bicameral Legislature

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The British system was bicameral with a House of Lords and a House of Commons. Fulfilling the Connecticut (great) Compromise Implementing Federalism

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Size, Terms, & Qualifications

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House of Representatives: 435 members Two-year terms Must be at least 25 years old, an American citizen for 7 years, and a resident of the state from which he or she is elected Senate: 100 members Six-year terms Must be at least 30 years old, an American citizen for 9 years, and a resident of the state from which he or she is elected

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Special Powers: House of Representatives

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Initiates revenue bills. Brings charges of impeachment against the president, vice president, and all civil officers of the United States. Chooses the president when the electoral college is deadlocked

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Special Powers: Senate

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Ratifies treaties negotiated by the president. Possesses the sole power to try or judge impeachment cases. Confirms judicial appointments, including United States attorneys, federal judges, and Supreme Court justices. Confirms executive appointments, including cabinet heads, the director of the FBI, and the U.S. Attorney General.

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Size & Apportionment

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The Constitution does not set the exact size of the House of Representatives. It does stipulate that its size shall be apportioned or distributed among the states based on their respective populations. The Constitution guarantees that each state will have at least one representative, regardless of population. Seven states currently only have one seat in the House

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Reapportionment

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The Constitution directs Congress to reapportion (reallocate) House seats after a census taken at ten-year intervals. As the population of the U.S. increased, so did the number of representatives in the House. By 1929 it had grown to 435 seats. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 set the permanent size of the House at 435 members. Each seat now represents an avg. of 700,000 people. Reapportionment is important because it increases or decreases both the number of seats a state has in the House and the number of electoral votes it has in the electoral college. As a state's representation increases, so does its potential influence and vice versa

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Districts

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The Constitution does not define or discuss congressional districts. In 1842, Congress stipulated that all seats in the House would be filled from single-member districts. The 1842 law assigned each state legislature the responsibility of drawing the boundary lines of its congressional districts

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Wesberry v. Sanders (1964)

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set forth the principle of \"one person, one vote\" in drawing congressional districts. The case triggered widespread redistricting that gave cities and suburbs greater representation in Congress.

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Supreme Court decisions have placed the following limitations on congressional redistricting

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Districts must be equally populated. Districts must be compact & lines must be contiguous (connected). Redistricting cannot dilute minority voting strength. District lines cannot be drawn based solely on race. However, race can be one of a variety of factors that are considered. It is important to note that Supreme Court decisions have not eliminated gerrymandering for partisan political purposes.

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Incumbents Usually Win

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During the last 50 years, incumbency has been the single most important factor in determining the outcome of congressional elections. Over 90% of House incumbents seeking reelection win. Over 75% of Senate incumbents seeking reelection win

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Reasons Why Incumbents Win

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Money: Incumbents are usually able to raise more campaign contributions than their challengers. PACs contribute more money to incumbents than to their challengers. Incumbents outspend challengers by a ratio of more than 2 to 1. Visibility: Incumbents are usually better known to the voters than are their challengers. Incumbents have opportunities to participate in highly visible activities that are covered by local media.

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Consequences of the Incumbency Advantage

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Congress contains a large number of experienced leaders, thus enabling it to maintain continuity of leadership and policy. The continuity discourages radical change while encouraging close relations with interest groups. Because incumbents benefit the most from existing campaign finance laws, they have no incentive to reform them.

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The Role of Political Parties

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Political parties play a key role in the organization of both houses of Congress. The majority party is the party in each chamber with the most votes. The minority party is the party in each chamber with the second most votes.

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The House of Representatives

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The House has always been much larger than the Senate and as a result, it has a more formal structure and is governed by stricter rules. For example, debate is much more restricted in the House than the Senate

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The Senate

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The Senate is smaller and thus less formally organized than the House. In contrast to the House, the Senate operates on informal rules

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The Importance of Committees

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Both the House and Senate are divided into committees and they play a dominant role in congressional policymaking. The committee system is particularly important in the House

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Standing Committees

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Permanent bodies that continue from one Congress to the next and focus on legislation in a particular area such as foreign relations. All bills are referred to standing committees, where they can be amended, passed, or killed. Standing committees foster expertise among their members. Divided into subcommittees where the details of legislation are worked out

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Select

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Special panels formed for a specific purpose and for a limited time, typically to conduct an investigation

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Joint

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Include members of both houses and function similar to select committees to focus attention on a major issue

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Conference

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Temporary bodies to resolve the differences between House and Senate versions of a bill. Members drawn from the committees that considered the bil

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The House Rules Committee

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Controlled by the Speaker and often referred to as the \"traffic cop.\" Gives each bill a rule that places it on the legislative calendar, limits time for debate, and determines the type of amendments allowed. A closed rule sets strict limits on debates and forbids amendments from the floor. An open rule sets less strict time limits and allows amendments from the floor

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The House Committee on Ways and Means

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Has jurisdiction on all taxation, tariffs, & other revenue-raising measures. Members on this committee can not serve on any other committee

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Committee Chairs and the Seniority System

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Committee chairs exercise great power and enjoy considerable prestige. They call meetings, schedule hearings, hire staff, recommend majority members to sit on committees and select subcommittee chairs. They often receive favors from lobbyist and PACs. Historically chosen by seniority and though now elected positions, the still tend to follow the seniority system

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Introduction

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Approx. 5,000 bills are introduced each year. Only about 125, or 2.5%, of these bills are made into law. The bicameral Congress and the complex committee system create a formidable series of obstacles that defeat most bills. The legislative process is lengthy, deliberate, fragmented, and characterized by negotiations and compromise

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Creating Bills

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Anyone can write a bills. Most bills are not written by members of Congress. Most bills originate in the executive branch. Business, labor, agriculture, and other interest groups often draft bills. Only members of Congress can introduce bills. They do so by dropping a bill into the \"hopper,\" a box hanging on the edge of the clerk's desk

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Committee Action

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The House and Senate have parallel processes. Bills are assigned a number and then sent to an appropriate committee. The bill is usually referred by the committee chair to a subcommittee for study, hearings, revisions, and approval. Most bills die in committees, where they are pigeonholed or buried

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discharge petition

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If a majority of the House wishes to consider a bill that has been pigeonholed, the bill can be blasted out of the committee with a discharge petition signed by a majority of the House members

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Oversight

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Refers to congressional review of the activities of an executive agency, department, or office. The Senate exercises a special oversight function by confirming cabinet heads and presidential appointments to the federal courts. Methods of congressional oversight include: Setting guidelines for new agencies. Holding hearings and conducting investigations. Using budget control. Reorganizing an agency. Evaluating an agency's programs.

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Foreign Policy

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The Constitutional Division of Power: Congress has the power to declare war. The Senate has the power to ratify treaties. The president is the commander-in-chief and has the power to wage war. In addition, the president has the power to negotiate treaties

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The War Powers Resolution

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Passed by Congress in 1973, the War Powers Resolution was a response to presidential actions during the Vietnam War. The resolution was designed to ensure that Congress had a greater voice in presidential decisions. The War Powers Resolution requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops. The president must bring troops home from hostilities within 60 - 90 days unless Congress extends the time

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