question

ecology

answer

the study of how organisms interact with their environment

question

abiotic

answer

nonliving

question

biotic

answer

pertaining to the living organisms in the environment

question

organismal ecology

answer

the branch of ecology concerned with the morphological, physiological, and behavioral ways in which individual organisms meet the challenges posed by their biotic and abiotic environments

question

population

answer

a localized group of individuals that belong to the same biological species (that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring)

question

population ecology

answer

the study of populations in relation to the environment, including environmental influences on population density and distribution, age structure, and variations in population size

question

community

answer

all the organisms that inhabit a particular area; an assemblage of populations of different species living close enough together for potential interaction

question

community ecology

answer

the study of how interactions between species affect community structure and organization

question

ecosystem

answer

all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact; a community and its physical environment

question

ecosystem ecology

answer

the study of energy flow and the cycling of chemicals among the various biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem

question

landscape

answer

several different, primarily terrestrial ecosystems linked by exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms

question

landscape ecology

answer

the study of past, present, and future patterns of landscape use, as well as ecosystem management and the biodiversity of interacting ecosystems

question

patchiness

answer

localized variation in environmental conditions within an ecosystem, arranged spatially into a complex of discrete areas that may be characterized by distinctive groups of species or ecosystem processes

question

biosphere

answer

the entire portion of Earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the planet's ecosystems

question

precautionary principle

answer

a guiding principle in making decisions about the environment, cautioning to consider carefully the potential consequences of actions

question

dispersal

answer

the distribution of individuals within geographic population boundaries

question

climate

answer

the prevailing weather conditions at a locality

question

macroclimate

answer

large-scale variations in climate; the climate of an entire region

question

microclimate

answer

very fine scale variations of climate, such as the specific climatic conditions underneath a log

question

tropics

answer

latitudes between 23.5° north and south

question

turnover (apple? no)

answer

the mixing of waters as a result of changing water-temperature profiles in a lake

question

biome

answer

any of the world's major ecosystems, classified according to the predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment

question

photic zone

answer

the narrow top slice of the ocean, where light permeates sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur

question

aphotic zone

answer

the part of the ocean beneath the photic zone, where light does not penetrate sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur

question

benthic zone

answer

the bottom surface of an aquatic environment

question

benthos

answer

the communities of organisms living in the benthic zone of an aquatic biome

question

detritus

answer

dead organic matter

question

thermocline

answer

a narrow stratum of rapid temperature change in the ocean and in many temperate-zone lakes

question

oligotrophic lake

answer

a nutrient-poor, oxygen-rich, clear, deep lake with few phytoplankton

question

eutrophic lake

answer

a nutrient-rich and oxygen-poor lake, having a high rate of biological productivity

question

littoral zone

answer

in a lake, the shallow, well-lit waters close to shore

question

limnetic zone

answer

in a lake, the well-lit, open surface waters farther from shore

question

wetland

answer

an ecosystem intermediate between an aquatic one and a terrestrial one. Wetland soil is saturated with water permanently or periodically

question

estuary

answer

the area where a freshwater stream or river merges with the ocean

question

seascape

answer

several different, primarily aquatic ecosystems linked by exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms

question

intertidal zone

answer

the shallow zone of the ocean where land meets water

question

oceanic zone

answer

the region of water lying over deep areas beyond the continental shelf

question

oceanic pelagic biome

answer

most of the ocean's waters far from shore, constantly mixed by ocean currents

question

coral reef

answer

a warm-water, tropical ecosystem dominated by the hard skeletal structures secreted primarily by the resident cnidarians

question

neritic zone

answer

the shallow region of the ocean overlying the continental shelf

question

pelagic zone

answer

the area of the ocean past the continental shelf, with areas of open water often reaching to very great depths

question

deep-sea hydrothermal vent

answer

a dark, hot, oxygen-deficient environment associated with volcanic activity. The food producers are chemoautotrophic prokaryotes

question

climograph

answer

a plot of the temperature and precipitation in a particular region

question

canopy

answer

the uppermost layer of vegetation in a terrestrial biome

question

ecotone

answer

the transition from one type of habitat or ecosystem to another, such as the transition from a forest to a grassland

question

savanna

answer

a tropical grassland biome with scattered individual trees, large herbivores, and three distinct seasons based primarily on rainfall, maintained by occasional fires and drought

question

chaparral

answer

a scrubland biome of dense, spiny evergreen shrubs found at midlatitudes along coasts where cold ocean currents circulate offshore; characterized by mild, rainy winters and long, hot, dry summers

question

temperate broadleaf forest

answer

a biome located throughout midlatitude regions where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large, broadleaf deciduous trees

question

tundra

answer

a biome at the extreme limits of plant growth. At the northernmost limits, it is called arctic tundra, and at high altitudes, where plant forms are limited to low shrubby or matlike vegetation, it is called alpine tundra

question

permafrost

answer

a permanently frozen stratum below the arctic tundra

question

agonistic behavior

answer

a type of behavior involving a contest of some kind that determines which competitor gains access to some resource, such as food or mates

question

altruism

answer

behavior that reduces an individual's fitness while increasing the fitness of another individual

question

associative learning

answer

the acquired ability to associate one stimulus with another; also called classical conditioning

question

behavioral ecology

answer

the scientific study of animal behavior, including how it is controlled and how it develops, evolves, and contributes to survival and reproductive success

question

classical conditioning

answer

a type of associative learning; the association of a normally irrelevant stimulus with a fixed behavioral response

question

coefficient of relatedness

answer

the probability that a particular gene present in one individual will also be inherited from a common parent or ancestor in a second individual

question

cognition

answer

the ability of an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information obtained by its sensory receptors

question

cognitive ethology

answer

the scientific study of cognition; the study of the connection between data processing by nervous systems and animal behavior

question

cognitive map

answer

a representation within the nervous system of spatial relations between objects in an animal's environment

question

communication

answer

animal behavior involving transmission of, reception of, and response to signals

question

culture

answer

the ideas, customs, skills, rituals, and similar activities of a people or group that are passed along to succeeding generations

question

ethology

answer

the study of animal behavior in natural conditions

question

fixed action pattern (FAP)

answer

a sequence of behavioral acts that is essentially unchangeable and usually carried to completion once initiated

question

foraging

answer

behavior necessary to recognize, search for, capture, and consume food

question

game theory

answer

an approach to evaluating alternative strategies in situations where the outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also on the strategies of other individuals; a way of thinking about behavioral evolution in situations where the fitness of a particular behavioral phenotype is influenced by other behavioral phenotypes in the population

question

habituation

answer

a very simple type of learning that involves a loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information

question

Hamilton's rule

answer

the principle that for natural selection to favor an altruistic act, the benefit to the recipient, devalued by the coefficient of relatedness, must exceed the cost to the altruist

question

imprinting

answer

a type of learned behavior with a significant innate component, acquired during a limited critical period

question

inclusive fitness

answer

the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring

question

innate behavior

answer

behavior that is developmentally fixed and under strong genetic control. Innate behavior is exhibited in virtually the same form by all individuals in a population despite internal and external environmental differences during development and throughout their lifetimes

question

kin selection

answer

a phenomenon of inclusive fitness, used to explain altruistic behavior between related individuals

question

kinesis

answer

a change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimulus

question

landmark

answer

a point of reference for orientation during navigation

question

learning

answer

a behavioral change resulting from experience

question

mate choice copying

answer

behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others, apparently as a result of social learning

question

monogamous

answer

a type of relationship in which one male mates with just one female

question

operant conditioning

answer

a type of associative learning in which an animal learns to associate one of its own behaviors with a reward or punishment and then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior; also called trial-and-error learning

question

optimal foraging theory

answer

the basis for analyzing behavior as a compromise of feeding costs versus feeding benefits

question

pheromone

answer

in animals and fungi, a small, volatile chemical that functions in communication and that in animals acts much like a hormone in influencing physiology and behavior

question

polyandry

answer

a polygamous mating system involving one female and many males

question

polygamous

answer

a type of relationship in which an individual of one sex mates with several of the other

question

polygyny

answer

a polygamous mating system involving one male and many females

question

promiscuous

answer

a type of relationship in which mating occurs with no strong pair-bonds or lasting relationships

question

proximate question

answer

in animal behavior, an inquiry that focuses on the environmental stimuli, if any, that trigger a particular behavioral act, as well as the genetic, physiological, and anatomical mechanisms underlying it

question

reciprocal altruism

answer

altruistic behavior between unrelated individuals, whereby the current altruistic individual benefits in the future when the current beneficiary reciprocates

question

sensitive period

answer

a limited phase in an individual animal's development when learning of particular behaviors can take place

question

sign stimulus

answer

an external sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern

question

signal

answer

a behavior that causes a change in behavior in another animal

question

social learning

answer

modification of behavior through the observation of other individuals

question

sociobiology

answer

the study of social behavior based on evolutionary theory

question

spatial learning

answer

modification of behavior based on experience of the spatial structure of the environment

question

taxis

answer

movement toward or away from a stimulus

question

ultimate question

answer

in animal behavior, an inquiry that focuses on the evolutionary significance of a behavioral act

question

age structure

answer

the relative number of individuals of each age in a population

question

big-bang reproduction

answer

a life history in which adults have but a single reproductive opportunity to produce large numbers of offspring, such as the life history of the Pacific salmon; also known as semelparity

question

carrying capacity

answer

the maximum population size that can be supported by the available resources, symbolized as K

question

clumped

answer

describing a dispersion pattern in which individuals are aggregated in patches

question

cohort

answer

a group of individuals of the same age, from birth until all are dead

question

demographic transition

answer

a shift from zero population growth in which birth rates and death rates are high to zero population growth characterized instead by low birth and death rates

question

demography

answer

the study of statistics relating to births and deaths in populations

question

density

answer

the number of individuals per unit area or volume

question

density dependent

answer

referring to any characteristic that varies according to an increase in population density

question

density independent

answer

referring to any characteristic that is not affected by population density

question

dispersion

answer

the pattern of spacing among individuals within geographic population boundaries

question

ecological capacity

answer

the actual resource base of a country

question

ecological footprint

answer

a method to use multiple constraints to estimate the human carrying capacity of Earth by calculating the aggregate land and water area in various ecosystem categories that is appropriated by a nation to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb all the waste it generates

question

emigration

answer

the movement of individuals out of a population

question

exponential population growth

answer

the geometric increase of a population as it grows in an ideal, unlimited environment

question

immigration

answer

the influx of new individuals from other areas

question

infant mortality

answer

the number of infant deaths per 1, 000 live births

question

iteroparity

answer

a life history in which adults produce large numbers of offspring over many years; also known as repeated reproduction

question

K-selection

answer

the concept that in certain (K-selected) populations, life history is centered around producing relatively few offspring that have a good chance of survival

question

life expectancy at birth

answer

the predicted average length of life at birth

question

life history

answer

the series of events from birth through reproduction and death

question

life table

answer

a table of data summarizing mortality in a population

question

logistic population growth

answer

a model describing population growth that levels off as population size approaches carrying capacity

question

mark-recapture method

answer

a sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations

question

metapopulation

answer

a subdivided population of a single species

question

population

answer

a localized group of individuals that belong to the same biological species (that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring)

question

population dynamics

answer

the study of how complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors influence variations in population size

question

population ecology

answer

the study of populations in relation to the environment, including environmental influences on population density and distribution, age structure, and variations in population size

question

random

answer

describing a dispersion pattern in which individuals are spaced in a patternless, unpredictable way

question

repeated reproduction

answer

a life history in which adults produce large numbers of offspring over many years; also known as iteroparity

question

reproductive table

answer

an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population

question

r-selection

answer

the concept that in certain (r-selected) populations, a high reproductive rate is the chief determinant of life history

question

semelparity

answer

a life history in which adults have but a single reproductive opportunity to produce large numbers of offspring, such as the life history of the Pacific salmon; also known as big-bang reproduction

question

survivorship curve

answer

a plot of the number of members of a cohort that are still alive at each age; one way to represent age-specific mortality

question

territoriality

answer

a behavior in which an animal defends a bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals, usually of its own species. Territory defense may involve direct aggression or indirect mechanisms such as scent marking or singing

question

uniform

answer

describing a dispersion pattern in which individuals are evenly distributed

question

zero population growth (ZPG)

answer

a period of stability in population size, when the per capita birth rate and death rate are equal

question

aposematic coloration

answer

the bright coloration of animals with effective physical or chemical defenses that acts as a warning to predators

question

Batesian mimicry

answer

a type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators

question

biomanipulation

answer

a technique for restoring eutrophic lakes that reduces populations of algae by manipulating the higher-level consumers in the community rather than by changing nutrient levels or adding chemical treatments

question

biomass

answer

the dry weight of organic matter comprising a group of organisms in a particular habitat

question

bottom-up model

answer

a model of community organization in which mineral nutrients control community organization because nutrients control plant numbers, which in turn control herbivore numbers, which in turn control predator numbers

question

character displacement

answer

the tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species

question

coevolution

answer

the mutual evolutionary influence between two different species interacting with each other and reciprocally influencing each other's adaptations

question

commensalism

answer

a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits but the other is neither helped nor harmed

question

community

answer

all the organisms that inhabit a particular area; an assemblage of populations of different species living close enough together for potential interaction

question

competitive exclusion

answer

the concept that when populations of two similar species compete for the same limited resources, one population will use the resources more efficiently and have a reproductive advantage that will eventually lead to the elimination of the other population

question

cryptic coloration

answer

camouflage, making potential prey difficult to spot against its background

question

disturbance

answer

a force that changes a biological community and usually removes organisms from it. Disturbances, such as fire and storms, play pivotal roles in structuring many biological communities

question

dominant species

answer

those species in a community that have the highest abundance or highest biomass. These species exert a powerful control over the occurrence and distribution of other species

question

dynamic stability hypothesis

answer

the idea that long food chains are less stable than short chains

question

ecological niche

answer

the sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment

question

ecological succession

answer

transition in the species composition of a biological community, often following ecological disturbance of the community; the establishment of a biological community in an area virtually barren of life

question

ectoparasite

answer

a parasite that feeds on the external surface of a host

question

endoparasite

answer

a parasite that lives within a host

question

energetic hypothesis

answer

the concept that the length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain

question

evapotranspiration

answer

the evaporation of water from soil plus the transpiration of water from plants

question

facilitator

answer

a species that has a positive effect on the survival and reproduction of other species in a community and that contributes to community structure

question

food chain

answer

the pathway along which food is transferred from trophic level to trophic level, beginning with producers

question

food web

answer

the elaborate, interconnected feeding relationships in an ecosystem

question

herbivory

answer

an interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga

question

host

answer

the larger participant in a symbiotic relationship, serving as home and feeding ground to the symbiont

question

individualistic hypothesis

answer

the concept, put forth by H. A. Gleason, that a plant community is a chance assemblage of species found in the same area simply because they happen to have similar abiotic requirements

question

integrated hypothesis

answer

the concept, put forth by F. E. Clements, that a community is an assemblage of closely linked species, locked into association by mandatory biotic interactions that cause the community to function as an integrated unit, a sort of superorganism

question

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

answer

the concept that moderate levels of disturbance can foster greater species diversity than low or high levels of disturbance

question

interspecies interaction

answer

relationships between species of a community

question

interspecific competition

answer

competition for resources between plants, between animals, or between decomposers when resources are in short supply

question

keystone species

answer

a species that is not necessarily abundant in a community yet exerts strong control on community structure by the nature of its ecological role or niche

question

Müllerian mimicry

answer

a mutual mimicry by two unpalatable species

question

mutualism

answer

a symbiotic relationship in which both participants benefit

question

niche

answer

see ecological niche. The sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment

question

nonequilibrium model

answer

the model of communities that emphasizes that they are not stable in time but constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances

question

parasite

answer

an organism that benefits by living in or on another organism at the expense of the host

question

parasitoidism

answer

a type of parasitism in which an insect lays eggs on or in a living host; the larvae then feed on the body of the host, eventually killing it

question

pathogen

answer

a disease-causing agent

question

predation

answer

an interaction between species in which one species, the predator, eats the other, the prey

question

primary succession

answer

a type of ecological succession that occurs in a virtually lifeless area, where there were originally no organisms and where soil has not yet formed

question

redundancy model

answer

the concept, put forth by H. A. and Brian Walker, that most of the species in a community are not tightly coupled with one another (that is, the web of life is very loose). According to this model, an increase or decrease in one species in a community has little effect on other species, which operate independently

question

relative abundance

answer

differences in the abundance of different species within a community

question

resource partitioning

answer

the division of environmental resources by coexisting species such that the niche of each species differs by one or more significant factors from the niches of all coexisting species

question

rivet model

answer

the concept, put forth by Paul and Anne Ehrlich, that many or most of the species in a community are associated tightly with other species in a web of life. According to this model, an increase or decrease in one species in a community affects many other species

question

secondary succession

answer

a type of succession that occurs where an existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil intact

question

species diversity

answer

the number and relative abundance of species in a biological community

question

species richness

answer

the number of species in a biological community

question

species-area curve

answer

the biodiversity pattern, first noted by Alexander von Humboldt, that illustrates that the larger the geographic area of a community, the greater the number of species

question

top-down model

answer

a model of community organization in which predation controls community organization because predators control herbivores, which in turn control plants, which in turn control nutrient levels; also called the trophic cascade model

question

trophic structure

answer

the different feeding relationships in an ecosystem, which determine the route of energy flow and the pattern of chemical cycling

question

actual evapotranspiration

answer

the amount of water annually transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape, usually measured in millimeters

question

biogeochemical cycle

answer

any of the various nutrient circuits, which involve both biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems

question

biological magnification

answer

a trophic process in which retained substances become more concentrated with each link in the food chain

question

critical load

answer

the amount of added nutrient, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity

question

decomposer

answer

any of the saprobic fungi and prokaryotes that absorb nutrients from nonliving organic material such as corpses, fallen plant material, and the wastes of living organisms, and convert them into inorganic forms

question

detritivore

answer

a consumer that derives its energy from nonliving organic material; a decomposer

question

detritus

answer

dead organic matter

question

ecosystem

answer

all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact; a community and its physical environment

question

eutrophication

answer

a process by which nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, become highly concentrated in a body of water, leading to increased growth of organisms such as algae. Cultural eutrophication refers to situations where the nutrients added to the water body originate mainly from human sources, such as agricultural drainage or sewage

question

greenhouse effect

answer

the warming of planet Earth due to the atmospheric accumulation of carbon dioxide, which absorbs relected infrared radiation and re-reflects some of it back toward Earth

question

green world hypothesis

answer

the conjecture that terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant biomass because they are held in check by a variety of factors, including predators, parasites, and disease

question

gross primary production (GPP)

answer

the total primary production of an ecosystem

question

limiting nutrient

answer

an element that must be added for production to increase in a particular area

question

net primary production (NPP)

answer

the gross primary production of an ecosystem minus the energy used by the producers for respiration

question

primary consumer

answer

an herbivore; an organism in the trophic level of an ecosystem that eats plants or algae

question

primary producer

answer

an autotroph, usually a photosynthetic organism. Collectively, autotrophs make up the trophic level of an ecosystem that ultimately supports all other levels

question

primary production

answer

the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy (organic compounds) by autotrophs in an ecosystem during a given time period

question

production efficiency

answer

the fraction of energy stored in food that is not used for respiration

question

secondary consumer

answer

a member of the trophic level of an ecosystem consisting of carnivores that eat herbivores

question

secondary production

answer

the amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to their own new biomass during a given time period

question

tertiary consumer

answer

a member of the trophic level of an ecosystem consisting of carnivores that eat mainly other carnivores

question

trophic efficiency

answer

the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next

question

turnover time

answer

the time required to replace the standing crop of a population or group of populations (for example, of phytoplankton), calculated as the ratio of standing crop biomass to production

question

biodiversity hot spot

answer

a relatively small area with an exceptional concentration of endemic species and a large number of endangered and threatened species

question

biological augmentation

answer

an approach to restoration ecology that uses organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem

question

bioremediation

answer

the use of living organisms to detoxify and restore polluted and degraded ecosystems

question

conservation biology

answer

the integrated study of ecology, evolutionary biology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics, and behavioral biology in an effort to sustain biological diversity at all levels

question

ecosystem services

answer

functions performed by natural ecosystems that directly or indirectly benefit humans

question

effective population size

answer

an estimate of the size of a population based on the numbers of females and males that successfully breed; generally smaller than the total population

question

endangered species

answer

a species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range

question

extinction vortex

answer

a downward population spiral in which positive-feedback loops of inbreeding and genetic drift cause a small population to shrink and, unless reversed, become extinct

question

introduced species

answer

a species moved by humans, either intentionally or accidentally, from its native location to a new geographic region; also called an exotic species

question

landscape ecology

answer

the study of past, present, and future patterns of landscape use, as well as ecosystem management and the biodiversity of interacting ecosystems

question

minimum viable population (MVP)

answer

the smallest population size at which a species is able to sustain its numbers and survive

question

movement corridor

answer

a series of small clumps or a narrow strip of quality habitat (usable by organisms) that connects otherwise isolated patches of quality habitat

question

overexploitation

answer

harvesting by humans of wild plants or animals at rates exceeding the ability of populations of those species to rebound

question

population viability analysis (PVA)

answer

a method of predicting whether or not a population will persist

question

restoration ecology

answer

a goal-directed science that applies ecological principles in an effort to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to their natural, predegraded state

question

sustainable development

answer

the long-term prosperity of human societies and the ecosystems that support them

question

zoned reserve

answer

an extensive region of land that includes one or more areas undisturbed by humans surrounded by lands that have been changed by human activity and are used for economic gain

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