AP Art History – Byzantium – Flashcards

324: Constantine founded Constantinople on the site of ancient Byzantium. 395: When Theodosius (who in 380 established Christianity as the state religion) died, imperial power passed to sons: Arcadius Emperor of the East, and Honorius Emperor of the West. Empire was divided as century earlier Diocletians When Visgoths (Germanic people) threatened, Honorius moved capital from Milan to Ravenna. Government in West soon gave way to warring kingdoms (ch. 11) Eastern Christian Empire lasted a millennium until (ironically) Constantine XI died at Constantinople in 1453 at war with the Ottoman Turks. Byzantine's collapse brought scholars to Rome from East who introduced the study of classical Greek to Italy and inspired Renaissance. Historians refer to the empire as Byzantium, but the emperors called their empire Rome and spoke Greek. Christian buffer against the expansion of Islam Byzantium Christianized Slavic people in Balkans and Russia . . . Orthodox religion, alphabet, literary culture, art and architecture.

From founding of Constantinople in 324 to the onset of iconoclasm (the destruction of images used in religious worship) in 726 under Leo III. Understand the cultural mix of Roman, Christian, and eastern influences in the art of Byzantium.

Largest Byzantine carved ivory panel "Receive these gifts" offering orb to emperor in missing diptych leaf Prototype: winged Victory (not a woman, not carrying palm branch of victory) What indicates the classical tradition? How did the artist reject the classical artists' goal of rendering the three-dimensional world in convincing and consistent fashion with figures rooted firmly on the ground?

Justinian's generals: drove the Ostrogothes out of Italy expelled the Vandals from the African providences beat back Bulgars from the North held the Sasanians on the eastern borders In Constantinople, Justinian put down the Nika revolt of political and religious factions Supervised the codification of Roman law into the Code of Civil Law, which became the law system for many modern European nations. Proclaimed Christianity as the only lawful religion Orthodox doctrine of equality of trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit Christ had a dual divine-human nature. In Constantinople built or restored more than 30 Orthodox churches, cost subjects dearly in taxation.

Church of Holy Wisdom ANTHEMIUS OF TRALLES, a mathematician and ISIDORUS OF MILETUS, a physicist designed Fire destroyed prior church on site during Nika riot in 532. Justinian's goal was to surpass all other churches in scale and magnificence. The dome is 108' in diameter and height above pavement Collapsed in 558, repaired in 9th and 14th c.

External aspects are different from original: buttresses are later additions, minarets were added after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 when Hagia Sophia became a mosque. It is now a museum. Mystical quality of light. Most characteristic feature of Byzantine construction is placing a circular dome on top of a square. Pendentives (from Latin pendere, to hang) are smaller domes that rest on top of larger domes, transferring the weight to the 4 piers. Squinches bridge corners of supporting walls and form an octagon. A domed basilica that united Greek theology, ambitious scale of Rome, vaulting of Mesopotamia, and mysticism of Eastern Christianity. Thrusts (outward or lateral stress in a structure, as that exerted by an arch or vault) of the pendentive construction made external buttresses as well as northern and southern wall piers and eastern and western half-domes necessary to support the weight. Columnar arcades of the nave and 2nd floor galleries have no structural function. Using brick instead of concrete is distinctive of Byzantine architecture. Clergy only in nave, laity (segregated by sex) in aisles and galleries had partial views of ceremonies. Emperor only layperson allowed to enter sanctuary: church and state united.

In 493, Theodoric, the Ostrogoth's greatest king, chose Ravenna, as his capital of his kingdom. Importance of city declined under Theodoric's successor's until . . . In 539 Justinian's general, Belisarius captured the city. The city's art, even more than Constantinople where little outside architecture survives, reveals the transition from Early Christian to Byzantine style.

San Vitale began under Bishop Ecclesius (r. 522 - 532) shortly after Theodric's death in 526. Wealthy Julianus Argentarius (Julian the Banker) funded construction with 26,000 solidi (gold coins weighing more than 350 pounds.

Centrally planned, NOT a basilica. Dome covered clerestory-lit central space Piers alternate with curved, columned exedrae (semi-circular niches) Intricate 8 leafed plan Cross-vaulted choir interrupts ambulatory, give plan axial stability. Angle of narthex may be because the (no longer existing) atrium paralleled a street. San Vitale, ambulatory Enter through narthex into the groin vaulted ambulatory encircling the central domed space. The brick walls and vaults were originally covered in marble panels with few surviving (left). San Vitale View Interior Main domed space is supported on 8 large piers Their solid mass alternating with the semi-circular niches (exedrae) that extend into the ambulatory and 2nd story gallery 2nd story gallery reserved for women

Vision of prophecy of Christ's second coming, holds scroll with 7 seals, 4 rivers of paradise beneath, rainbow clouds above Hands gold martyr's wreath to Saint Vitalis, patron saint Bishop Ecclesius offers model of San Vitale to Christ

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Organic body has dematerialized, matter and material values are disparaged . . . purpose of religious art is to stimulate spiritual seeing. Positions of figures express rank: emperor (holding paten (large bowl/plate for Eucharist bread), staff, clergy, and imperial guard. Purple robes and halos link emperor and wife to Christ's mosaic in the vault. To the right of Justinian is Bishop Maximianus, responsible to San Vitale's completion. Nothing in Justinian's mosaic background, implies procession taking place in San Vitale Theodora is outside sanctuary, her rank is less than Justinian's. 15 years younger, from humble family, but was very influential. A civil servant at Constantinople described her as "surpassing in intelligence all men who had ever lived." She persuaded Justinian and his generals to hold their ground during Nika uprising and they succeeded. 3 magi on border of Theodora's garment underscore her power.

Housed body of Saint Apollinare, martyred in Ravenna's port. May represent cross Constantine erected on hill of Calvary to commemorate Jesus' martyrdom. On sides of cross: Moses and Elijah who appeared to Jesus during his transfiguration. Apollinaris as an orant in center

Compare with Galla Placidia mosaic, 5th century The figure, animals, and plants are now flat symbols, not modeled forms. Complex symbolism in Sant'Apollinare: Cross symbolizes Christ's death, death of martyrs, and Christ's transfiguration. Lambs, symbols of martyrdom represents martyred apostles. Mosaic was above altar where priests celebrated Eucharist. Altars were sanctified by bones and relics of martyrs. Even illiterate could understand - reward of eternal life is within reach.

Icons (images in Greek) are small portable paintings of Christ, the Virgin, and/or saints from the 4th century on. Very popular in Byzantine worship in the 6th century. Spiritual transaction, wonders and miracles were attributed to them by believers. Guardian Saints Theodore and George interceded with the Virgin on the viewer's behalf. Traces of classical illusionism in faces, but not saints' bodies. Hand of God at top with light shaft.

Many Christians feared breaking the 2nd commandment. Icon veneration confused with idol worship. Iconoclasts (breakers of images) vs. Iconophiles (lovers of images) These icons, were found in an area especially opposed, since it had suffered a series of calamities that Emperor Leo III (r. 717 - 741) may have attributed to God punishing idol worshipers, or . . . he was asserting the authority of the state over the church when he banned picturing the divine in 726. Sasanians captured Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria between 611- 617. Byzantine emperor, Heraclius (r. 610 - 641) hardly defeated them in 627 when the Islamic Arabs (who did shunned representation of all living things in holy places) conquered the eastern Byzantine providences and Persia. For more than a century, during the Iconoclasm, countless works of art were destroyed from several centuries of Christendom.

Iconoclasm had forced many Byzantine artists westward, employed by German kings and influenced the character of Western European art. 8th century, St. John of Damascus argued in favor of icons: the invisible God, made an image of himself in Jesus and humans and although icons were likenesses of holy figures, they were not identical to prototypes. Regent Theodora, after husband Theophilos' (r. 829 - 842) death, condemned iconoclasm as heresy (opposed to official beliefs). New line of Macedonian emperors, resuscitated the Early Byzantine tradition of lavishly funding religious art and architecture.

Macedonian dynasty dedicated new mosaic in Hagia Sophia in 867. 16 feet tall, but looks dwarfed in massive space. Similar to Early Byzantine Mt. Sinai icon. Angular placement of throne and foot stool in "perspective" recalls Greco-Roman roots.

10 - 12th centuries monastic churches were built Small and high-shouldered with a central dome on a drum

Exterior wall surfaces with decorative patterns, probably reflecting Islamic architecture. Light stones framed by dark red bricks, cloisonne technique, named from enamel work. Surface dynamism created with arcuated windows, projecting apses, and varying roof lines.

Domed cross in a square with 4 equal-length vaulted cross arms (the Greek Cross) Circle-octagon-square-oblong series is at once complex and unified.

In Early Byzantine period, Venice was a dependency of Ravenna, 80 miles to the south. In 751 Ravenna fell to the Lombards, who took most of northern Italy from Constantinople. However, Venise became an independent power. Its doges (dukes) got rich through sea trading and served as the link between Byzantium and the West. Venice acquired relics of St. Mark from Alexandria in Egypt in 829, doges constructed first Venetian shrine dedicated to him, which burnt down in 976, then a second shrine was built.

Saint Mark's was built on site of the original burned shrine. Begun in 1063 by Doge Domenico Contarini Cruciform plan with a central dome as well as 4 more domes over equal arms of Greek cross. Windows around bases of all five domes. Mosaics date to 12th and 13th centuries and have labels in both Latin and Greek reflecting Venice's link between Eastern and Western Christendom. Central dome - Christ ascends to Heaven in the presence of the Virgin Mary and 12 apostles.

Pantokrator, (ruler of all) holding the New Testament in his left hand and a gesture of blessing or teaching with his right. Normans, northern French descendents of Vikings, drove the Arabs from Sicily and set up a kingdom there. Enemies of Byzantium, but assimilated the culture and even hired artisans. Also incorporated elements of Islamic art of the Arabs they defeated. Norman king William III (r. 1087 - 1100) paid for mosaics and artisans portrayed him twice. Basilica, longitudinally planned, apse is the only vault. Theotokos flanked by archangels and 12 apostles appears below the Pantokrator. Lower on the wall are the pope, bishops, and other saints.

Portable shrine, replaced icons for personal prayer. Wings, inside and out, 4 pairs of full length figures and 2 pairs of medallions depicting saints. Cross on the back The center features a scene of Deesis (supplication - petitioning/ asking). St. John the Baptist and Theotokos are intercessors, praying on behalf of the viewer. Below are the five apostles. More natural, classical style is characteristic of the Middle Byzantium period. It also surfaced in mural painting and book illumination.

Macedonian Renaissance, study of Ancient Greece and reverence for classical past. Similar to Pompeii murals, David is depicted as Orpheus, the Greek hero who charmed even inanimate objects with his music. Accompanied by allegorical figures: Melody looks over his shoulder, Echo peers from behind a column. Reclining male points to a Greek inscription identifying him as representing the mountain of Bethlehem. Allegorical figures are not from bible, but are from Greco-Roman painting.

Byzantine's fortunes changed for the worse because of three events after the Comnenian dynasty took over from the Macedonians: Seljuk Turks conquered most of Asia Minor. Byzantine Orthodox church broke with the Church of Rome. Crusades brought Latins (generic term for Western people) into Byzantium on their way to fight Saracens (Muslims) in the Holy Land. Venetians persuaded crusaders to attack Constantinople instead of Palestine in the 4th Crusade in 1203 - 1204. Latins set up kingdoms in Byzantium which split into 3 small states. Isolated from the Christian West by Muslims on the east and west, in 1453 Ottoman Turks took Constantinople and ended Byzantium. Fresco of the Anastasis in the apse of the parekklesion (side chapel, in this case funerary), features Christ (in a luminous mandorla) trampling Satan along with his locks and keys of his prison of Hell, while raising Adam and Eve from their tombs. John the Baptist, King David, and King Solomon are on the left, martyred saints are on the right.

Spiritual figures float: conventionalized version of spiritual world, not observed from nature, but drapery returns to fluid classical style.

Late Byzantine icons have paintings on two sides since they were carried in processions. Virgin on the front. Angel Gabriel announces to Mary that she will be the mother of God. Her response is a gesture that conveys astonishment and acceptance. Inconsistent perspective from classical prototypes Diversity of stylistic sources