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hominoid

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the broad-shouldered tailless group of primates that includes all living and extinct apes and humans

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Primate

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the order of mammals that has a complex of characteristics related to an initial adaptation to life in the trees.

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Primate adaptations

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grasping hands and feet, binocular vision, large brains, slow life history. Related to living in trees. Homologous. Modified and enhanced over time.

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Grasping hands and feet

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Primate quality. Early mammals had 5 digits, primates kept this. Grasping ability associated with arboreal life. Digits with tactile pads. Flat nails instead of claws. (protect skin at ends of fingers and toes).

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Binocular stereoscopic vision

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Primate quality. overlapping fields of vision, with both sides of the brain receiving images from both eyes, thereby providing depth perception. Results in worse sense of smell.

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Primate brain size

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relatively large brain to body size correlation. Large neocortex, associated with social complexity.

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Primate life history

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slow. life history to body size correlation. delayed maturation, prolonged infancy.

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Life history

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relative timing of developmental events in the life cycle of an individual

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Major primate groups

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Prosimians and anthropoids

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Anthropoids include..

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new world monkeys, old world monkeys, hominoids

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Hominoids include..

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apes and humans

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Prosimians

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"primitive primates". small, nocturnal, arboreal. Lemurs, e.g.. Closer to ancestral conditions for primates. Front teeth act as a comb.

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Monkeys

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Anthropoids. relative timing of developmental events in the life cycle of an individual

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New world monkeys

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Highly arboreal. Some have prehensile tails (derived trait that did not develop in old world monkeys). Group living (anthropoid trait). Central and south america

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Old world monkeys

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More similar to humans than NW monkeys. Africa and Asia. Large diversity of habitats. Adaptable. Most terrestrial primate group. Full color vision. Large group sizes.

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Hominoids

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Apes and humans. Africa/Asia. Tropical regions. No tail. largest primates. Diverse range of social patterns. Human-like brains.

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Hominids

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A family within the hominoids. In recent years, this family has been defined as including humans and the great apes (orangutan, gorilla, chimpanzee, bonobo). Some scientists still use a more traditional definition that refers only to humans and their humanlike ancestors

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Hominins

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Humans and their ancestors since the time of divergence from the common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees, and bonobos

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Geographic distribution of humans

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Most widespread. Can inhabit any environment due to cultural (and genetic) adaptations. This has permitted tremendous population growth.

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Brains and face size of humans

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Largest brain and smallest face relative to body size.

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Brain of human

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uses 20% of body's energy. More neocortex area. Correlated with extended life history.

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How do primates walk?

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Bipedalism, quadrupedalism, leaping, suspensory locomotion.

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Human gait

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Walking cycle. Alternate stance and swing phases. Heel strike and toe off. Extended leg during stance phase. Coordination and balance involved.

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Genetic adaptations for bipedalism

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Convergent big toe (toe off), femur angled inward (promotes balance), vertical and curved spinal column (balance), short, wide pelvis (stability)

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Teeth of most anthropoids

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Long, projecting canines. Used as weapons. Sexual dimorphism. Canine honing complex.

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Canine honing complex

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the dental form in which the upper canine are sharpened against the lower third premolars when the jaws are closed

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Human canine

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incisiform (similar to incisors). Not used as weapon, no canine honing complex, no sexual dimorphism.

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Simple tool use

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Using a modified object to achieve a goal.

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What's different about human tool use?

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Tools saved for later use, more diverse and difficult materials, tools used to make other tools, composite tools.

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Comparative perspective

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Behaviors that are learned, socially transmitted, and geographically variable

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Differences in human culture

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characterized by a combo of patterns. Symbolism, art, identity, etc.

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Mosaic evolution

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A pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one functional system varies from that in other systems. For example, in hominin evolution, the dental system, locomotor system, and neurological system (especially the brain) all evolved at markedly different rates.

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Paleoanthropology

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the study of primate and human evolution

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Fossil

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Extinct organisms preserved in sediment and rock. Most often mammal teeth. Endocast = mineralized replica of the brain. footprints.

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Fossilization process

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Original biological material (bone) replaced by minerals (rock). Soft tissues don't fossilize. Hard parts protected from elements.

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Dating

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Way to determine the time sequence of fossil and archaeological remains in order to make sense of what changed over time, and how. Relative and absolute.

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Relative dating

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A comparative method of dating the older of two or more fossils or sites, rather than providing a specific date. Statigraphy

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Statigraphy

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A relative dating method based on the fact that older remains are found deeper in the earth because of cumulative buildup of the earth's surface over time.

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Absolute dating

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Determines an "exact" date for a specimen subject to statistical fluctuation. Half-life. Carbon 14 dating. (last 50k years) Argon dating. (ancient jawns)

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Determining if new fossil = new species

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Dont know if a fossil passes the BSC because no evidence of reproductive patterns. Use morphology! More unique combo of traits, the better. Must not confuse variation within species with variation between species

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Paleospecies

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Species identified from fossil remains based on their physical similarities and differences relative to other species.

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functional anatomy

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the study of anatomy in its relation to function. biomechanics + comparative morphology

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Archaeological record (material culture)

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the totality of physical remains of a past society, through which archaeologists seek to reconstruct the actual living culture of that society.

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Analyzing fossil remains

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Dating, reconstructing biology, naming new taxa, environmental context.

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Paleoecology

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the study of ancient environments

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Cenozoic era

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"Age of mammals". Third and most recent geologic era of the Phanerozoic eon. Primate and human evolution occurs here. 65 Ma to present. Directly followed extinction of dinos. 6 epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene

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Paleocene

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65-55 Ma. Epoch of cenozoic era. Ancestors of primates. Plesiadapiforms = primate-like mammals. Did not yet exhibit full primate pattern (mosaic). Grasping ability, nails come first.

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Eocene

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55-34 Ma. Epoch of cenozoic era. Earth warms up, radiation occurs, first true primates with full primate pattern, similar to modern prosimians, all over the world.

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Oligocene

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34-23 Ma. Epoch. Earth cools down. Primates extinct in NA and Europe. First anthropoids appear. Late oligocene = first new world monkeys.

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Miocene

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23-5.3 Ma. Epoch. Earth warms up again. Monkeys and apes split evolutionarily. Late miocene: hominins diverge from chimps.

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Pliocene / Pleistocene

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5.3 - .01 Ma. Epochs. Climate cools and dries out. Hominin evolution. Old world monkeys too.

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Cosmic calendar

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Carl Sagan. Helps put the date of everything into perspective by relating the age of the universe to a single year.

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Time span of hominin evolution

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6Ma - 1Ma. Late Miocene - Pliocene- Early Pleistocene. In late Mi/early Pli, apes and hominins split and bipedalism emerged. Middle Pli, definitive hominins, Austrolopithecus. Late pli, early Pleio, split between robust (Paranthropus) and Homo in Austro. Also homo erectus appeared and expanded outta Africa.

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Genus Australopithecus

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Many primitive hominins part of this species from Africa, retaining apelike features in some teeth and with ape-sized brains. Emerged in middle pliocene.

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Paranthropus

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Genus of vegetarian hominins includes P. aethiopicus, robustus and boisei. Large back teeth and powerful chewing muscles.

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Homo erectus

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essentially modern skeleton, full bipedal adaptations, and a brain much larger than earlier hominins. First hominin to expand out of Africa.

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Debate over habitat types

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Savannah or woodland? Savannah would make sense for bipedalism, but prior to 4.4Mya hominins lived in relatively wet forests and woodlands.

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penecontemporary

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Living at or around the same time. Several penecontemporary species.

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Things agreed upon in early human evolution

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First hominins walked upright but had ape-like traits (small brain, large face and teeth). First hominins walked upright but had ape-like traits (small brain, large face and teeth)

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Physical hominin characteristics

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Skeletal adaptations to bipedalism. ape-like brain size. Body weight = 100 lbs. Stature = 3.5-5 ft. Sex differences in body size like apes.

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Fossil sites of early hominins

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S, E, and Central Africa

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Bipedalism in hominins

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Definitive hominin trait. Part of the human pattern. First to appear in the fossil record (millions of years before other human characteristics)

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Early hominins and trees

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Perennial debate. Arboreal adaptations in upper limbs and hands. Adept in trees. Definite obligate biped when on ground. Ardipithecus complicates things.

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Why bipedalism in hominins?

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No other mammals are obligate bipeds. Bipedal in trees (like orangutans)? Upright feeding posture (reaching for fruit.. maybe evolved first for this, second for locomotion). Facultative bipedalism.

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Advantages of terrestrial bipedalism

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Bipedal walking is energy efficient. Maybe travel between tree patches. Would be the further development of a behavior inherited from a common ancestor (orangutans can move in trees). Seeing predators, carrying stuff, reducing heat stress (less surface area exposed)

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Peek-a-boo hypothesis

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Bipedalism arose from selective pressures that made it advantageous to look over tall grasses, possibly for predators or for other hominids(hominins) or for the next stand of trees.

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Three different forms of pliocene hominins

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Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus. All bipedal, small brains, ape characteristics in teeth.

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Sahelanthropus tchadensis

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Early possible hominin species from Africa, dating between 6 and 7 mya, that has a number of hominin dental traits and may have been bipedal. Chad. Evidence for bipedalism is weak, no postcranial evidence.

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Orrorin tugenensis

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An early, primitive hominin species from Africa, dating to the last Miocene (6 Ma). Kenya. Strong evidence for bipedalism. Arms indicate they spent time in trees. Femur indicates bipedal gait.

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Bipedal gait

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Groove for muscle attachment that is consistent with bipedalism, and analysis of the shape of different parts of the femur show that it is not apelike.

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Ardipithecus ramidus

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an early primitive hominin species from Africa, dating between 5.8ma to 4.4ma. Ethiopia.

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Ardipithecus kadabba

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early primitive hominin form Africa with very apelike teeth, dating between 5.8 ma and 5.2m. More primitive teeth than ardi-ram.

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Ardipithecus

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Ethiopia. Canine honing complex. Mixed evidence for bipedalism. Bipedal pelvis, ape-like foot. Hominin status uncertain. Maybe not obligate biped.

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Paranthropus

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Aethiopicus, Bosei, robustus. A species of australopithicus that had very large back teeth, cheekbones, and faces among other anatomical adaptations to heavy chewing. They lived in Africa bw 2.5 and 1.4 mya. AKA robust austrolopiths. Did NOT give rise to Homo, close relatives. Penecontemporary. S/E Africa. Teeth structure human, size not. Large cheekbones and sagittal crest. Ate roots and tubers.

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Paranthropus Aethiopicus

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Ancestor of bosei and robustus

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Paranthropus Bosei

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East Africa

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Paranthropus robustus

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S Africa

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Sagittal crest

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a ridge of bone running down the center of the top of the skull that serves to anchor chewing muscles.

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Australopithecus anamensis

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A hominin species that lived in East Africa between 3.9-4.2ma. It was a biped but had many primitive apelike features of the skull and teeth. Combo of primitive and derived traits (mosaic). Human-like ankle perp to tibia. ape-like teeth (large canine). Megadontia, not ape like or human lke.

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Australopithecus afarensis

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A primitive hominin found in East Africa, dating between 3.7 and 3ma. Best known early hominin. Less primitive than early hominins but more primitive than later hominins. Skull has small brain and face that juts out, and a number of primitive features on its back and bottom. Skull looks like that of a small ape. Bipedal adaptations = knee joint, Lucy skeleton. Maybe not obligate bipeds because their arms are long and fingers are curved. TRANSITIONAL LINK between early and later hominins. Intermediate canine size, no functional honing complex. Possible anagenisis from anamensis to afarensis. gives rise to the ancestors of Paranthropus and Homo

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Australopithecus Africanus

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A species of early hominin, dating between 3.3 ma and 2.5ma. found in s.Africa. Not as massive as the robust forms and may be an ancestor of genus Homo. Equal size cusps. Reversal of trend toward megadontia. More ape-like body than earlier australopiths. small brain, large face. Human like teeth, ape like limbs (postcranial paradox) = mosaic evolution.

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Australopithecus garhi

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An early hominin, dating to 2.5 ma in East Africa. It differs from other australopiths in having large front and back teeth, although the back teeth are not specialized to the same extent as found in the robust australopiths. Candidate ancestor of Homo. Ethiopia. Similar features to A. Afarensis. Megadontia, total loss of honing complex. Limb proportions between Austrolopiths and humans. Femoral elongation (H. erectus), Stone oldowan tools.

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Genus homo

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increased brain size, reduction in size of the face and teeth, increased reliance on cultural adaptations. Homo habilis, rudolfensis, erectus. Penecontemporary with paranthropus. Only erectus survives into late pleistocene. Biocultural evolution. Fallback food = meat.

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Defining characteristics of early homo

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enlarged brain size (rapid increace 700ka) Larger than australopiths, but not within modern human range yet. reduced back teeth, (goes away from megadontia trend). increased reliance on cultural adaptations (tools, fire, hunting groups). Stone tools are part of the human pattern (chimps can't do it) .

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Homo habilis

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an early species of Homo that lived in E and S Africa between 2.4 and 1.6 ma (and perhaps earlier), with a brain size roughly half that of modern humans and a primitive postcranial skeleton. Intermediate brain size (larger than hominins, A. africanus, smaller than other species within Homo genus). Intermediate post canine tooth size. Austrolopith type body (like Lucy). Definitely bipedal. Intermediate proportions. Postcranial paradox. transition from earlier australopiths and later, large-brained species in the genus Homo, like Homo erectus and others.

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Homo rudolfensis

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A species of early Homo from Africa that lived 1.9ma with a brain size somewhat larger than H habilis but with larger back teeth and a broader face. Sometimes labeled h habilis. Compared to habilis: larger brain (more human), larger back teeth (more austrolopith), wider face (paranthropus). Either a male H habilis, a separate species, or a hybrid.

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Oldowan tools

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The oldest known stone tool culture. 2.5 Ma in Ethiopia. Associated with Au. garhi. Found at all early Homo sites. Simple chopping and cutting tools. Striking off flakes from a round stone (core) using another stone. Results in a chopper (meat and bone) and a cutting blade (meat, grass). Flint, obsidian, quartz. Scavenging, not hunting.

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Pleistocene hominin evolution

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Last ice age = 700ka. sea levels fluctuated. Early pleistocene = (1.8 - .78 ma) Emergence of homo erectus. Dispersal to Asia. Middle pleistocene (.78 - .13 ma) = homo heidelbergensis.

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Homo erectus

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A species of the genus Homo that arose 1.9ma in Africa and then spread to parts of Asia and Europe. Only species to survive Early pleistocene. First hominin to move out of africa. Survived until recently. Intermediate brain size. Larger than h. habilis, smaller than humans. Thick cranial bones. Large brow ridges. Continued dental reduction. Large, projecting face. Low, flat forehead. Long, narrow braincase. Human like body shape. Acheulian tools. Meat as prepared food item. Fire use.

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Acheulian tools

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the stone tool culture that appeared first with Homo erectus and was characterized by the development of hand axes and other bifacial tools. Soft hammer technique = A method of removing flakes from a stone core by striking it with a softer material, such as bone, antler, or wood.

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Homo Heidelbergensis

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A species of archaic human with brain size close to that of modern humans but a larger, less modern face that lived in Africa, Europe, and Asia between 800ka and 200ka. Links H Erectus and H Sapiens. Likely chronospecies of H Erectus. First to colonize Europe. Compared to H Erectus : Higher, more rounded forehead. Smaller less projecting face. Still large brow ridges. Compared to H Sapiens = lower less rounded skull. larger face, no chin. Brain size overlaps human brain size. Levallois technique. Systematic hunting. Bite marks over cut marks. First SOLID evidence of fire use.

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Levallois technique

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A method of making stone tools in which a stone core is prepared in such a way that finished tools can be removed from it by a final blow. Also known as the prepared core method. Requires planning and precision.

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Neanderthals

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A population of humans that lived in Europe and the Middle East between about 130ka and 28ka. Debate continues as to whether they are a subspecies of Homo Sapiens or a separate species and to what extent they contributed to the ancestry of modern humans. pathological modern human. Later accepted as extinct population. Variety of cold adaptations. Cold adaptations: body mass and cultural and nose. Cranial traits: low skull, sloping forehead, brow ridges, large projecting face. no chin. occipital bun. Largest brain of any hominin. No living humans have Neanderthal DNA. Maybe separate species, maybe selection against N. mitochondrial DNA in the past. Maybe (not likely) genetic drift. Mousterian tool use. Hunted big game. First symbolic behavior (ritualized burials)

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Occipital bun

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the protruding rear region of the skull, a feature commonly found in Neandertals.

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Mousterian tool use

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The prepared-core stone tool culture of the Neandertals. modification of acheulian tool use. Increased assortment of tool types (lots of scrapers). Wooden spears with points halved.

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Homo floresiensis

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The species name given to a very small hominin that lived in Indonesia in recent times, and thought by some to be a dwarf species of Homo erectus. 90-12ka! (people thought that humans had been only hominin for 90k yrs). 3.5 ft tall, intermediate limb proportions, skull like early Homo, no chin, small brain! but human like brain structure, modern stone tools. Insular dwarfism? Developmental abnormality in a modern human ? VERY primitive wristbone. similar to Lucy. expansion of an australopith out of Africa, followed by independent acquisition of some human-like traits?

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Insular dwarfism

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The process by which natural selection favors smaller body size on an island with limited resources, leading to dwarfed species

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Anatomically modern humans

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Evolved from Mid Pleistocene hominins. (modern H Sapiens evolved from H Heidelbergensis). New species or subspecies? High rounded forehead, back of skull rounded (no occipital bun), retracted face, chin, minimal brow ridges. tropical body proportions. Reflects origin in Sub-Saharan Africa. Manufactured shelters. Art and symbolism.

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Human revolution

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40ka. Not associated with earliest AMH, which made Neanderthal like tools.

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Upper Paleolithic

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a general term used to collectively refer to the stone tool technologies of anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Tools variable from site to site (individualism). Very precisely made. First stone blades. Stone strikes antler strikes core. First bone tools.

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Regional continuity

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trait continuity within a geographic region; some skeletal and dental traits are found in both archaic and modern populations in a region

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Multiregional model

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The hypothesis that modern humans evolved throughout the Old World as a single species after the first dispersion of Homo Erectus out of Africa. H sapiens originated 1.8 Ma. (H erectus to H heidelbergensis to H sapiens all a single evolving lineage). Regional differences due to local selection/drift. Regional continuity in all regions. AMH neither a new species or a distinct subspecies.

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Replacement model

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the hypothesis that moden humans evolved as a new species in Africa 200ka and then spread throughout the old world, replacing preexisting human populations. Split off from H heidelbergensis. H sapiens originated ~200 kya (cladogenesis). Expansion with minimal interbreeding. Extinction of archaic humans outside of Africa such as Neanderthals. NO regional continuity anywhere. Traits appeared independently. AMH new species.

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Assimilation model

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The hypothesis that modern human anatomy arose first in Africa as a change within a species and then spread through gene flow to populations outside of Africa. The gene pool of the non-African populations was thus assimilated into an expanding population of modern humans out of Africa. • Local extinctions of some archaic populations. Some regional continuity. AMH are a distinct population (subspecies)

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Evidence for regional continuity

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Archaic traits in modern populations (maybe parallel evolution?) Shovel shaped incisors, occipital buns, Neanderthal body proportions. Gene flow reduces the frequency of regional differences, such that some regional traits will be lost over time, others will persist because of genetic drift and selection.

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