Anatomy and Physiology II: Study Guide Questions – Exam 1 – Flashcards

- Ductless - Slow to Act - Long Distance Signalling - Long Lasting Effects

- Pituitary Gland - Thyroid Gland - Parathyroid Gland - Adrenal Glands - Pineal Gland - Hypothalamus

Anterior Pituitary Hormones - Growth Hormone (GH) - Increased cellular division (growth). - Thyroid (Thyrotropin) Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - Stimulates the Thyroid to produce Thyroid Hormones (T4 and T3). - Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - increased production and release of corticosteroids and cortisol from the adrenal cortex. - Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - In Females FSH stimulates the growth and recruitment of immature ovarian follicles in the ovary. In males FSH stimulates primary spermatocytes to undergo the first division of meiosis, to form secondary spermatocytes. - Lutenizing Hormone (LH) - In females it triggers ovulation, in males it stimulates the production of Testosterone. - Prolactin - (PRL) - Stimulates mammary milk production in response to stimulation of the nipples of hormones during pregnancy. - Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) - Stimulate the production and release of melanin. Posterior Pituitary Hormones - Oxytocin - Produced by the hypothalamus and than stored in the pituitary - stimulates smooth muscle contractions of the uterus in response to uterine stretching. - Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - Produced by the hypothalamus and than stored in posterior pituitary - secretion stimulates the kidneys to take up extra water via the kidney tubels in response to decreased blood volume

- Thyroxine (T4) - Important component of cellular metabolism - inactive form of T3. - Triiodothyronine (T3) - Important component of cellular metabolism - active form of T4. - Calcitonin - Lowers blood calcium levels in response to increasing calcium levels in the blood - does so by stimulating osteoblasts.

- Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - Increases blood levels of calcium in response to falling calcium levels - it does so by promoting intestinal calcium absorption, inhibiting urinary secretion, and by stimulating osteoclasts.

- Epinephrine - Short term "Fight or Flight" hormone produced in response to stress. - Norephinephrine - Short term "Fight or Flight" hormone produced in response to stress. - Mineralocorticoids - Long term stress response - regulate electrolyte concentrations in the blood to help control blood pressure and volume. - Glucocorticoids - Influence metabolism and glucose mobilization; causes glucoegenesis and vascocontrictive actions aimed at rapidly distributing glucose to cells. - Gonodocorticoids -Sexual Developement.

- Melatonin - secreted in response to low light levels - acts on the brain stem and aids in sleep regulation.

Because it controls the entire endocrine system by way of the pituitary gland. Releasing Hormones Inhibiting Hormones

A system where production of the end product shuts off the initial production stimulus. Examples: Hypothalamus detects low circulating thyroid hormones -> Releases TRH (Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone) -> Pituitary Gland responds to TRH and secrects TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) -> Thyroid Releases Thyroid Hormone -> Increased levels of thyroid hormone shut off the Hypothalamus' release of TRH. Blood Glucose Rises -> Pancreases detects elevated levels and releases insulin -> Cells receive signal and re-uptake glucose -> Insulin levels drop and insulin production ceases

1. Synthesis - The hormone is synthesised by the originating endocrine organ. 2. Secretion and Storage - The hormone is held within a specialized compartment of its original synthesising organ or is shuttled to another organ for storage - it is than released when the right trigger appears. 3. Transport To Target Cell - Hormone travels via the blood stream until it reaches the appropriate receptor on the intended target cell(s). 4. Recognition By Associated Receptor - The Hormone is recognised by the appropriate receptor on the cell surface or in the cytoplasm and binds to it. 5. Relay and Amplification - Binding produces intracellular cascades that perform the work the hormone dictates must occur. 6. Degradation and Secretion - The hormone is degraded and secreted by the liver or kidneys when it's role is finished.

Steroid - Cholesterol based - lipid soluble - interact with intracellular receptors within cytoplasm - non-polar Amino Acid Based - Water Soluble (except thyroid hormone which is Amino Acid based by acts like a steroid) - bind to external cell receptors Lipid-Soluble Hormones - Diffuses through the cell membrane and binds to intracellular receptor; steroid-receptor complex than migrates to nucleus; Complex binds to specific section of DNA (hormone response element); Binding initiates transcription; Transcribed mRNA is translated into protein. Water-soluble Hormones - PIP2- Calcium Signalling pathway: Hormone binds to receptor activating G protein; G protein activates phospholipase C; Phospholipase C cleaves PIP2 into IP3 and DAG; IP3 releases intracellular calcium; DAG activates protein kinases Cyclic AMP (cAMP) pathway: Hormone binds to receptor; receptor changes shape binding to inactive G protein; G protein is activated as GDP displaced by GTP; Activated G protein binds to adenylate cyclase; Activated adenylate cyclase generates cAMP; cAMP diffuses through the cell and activates protein kinases

Humoral - Endocrine organ secretes a hormone in response to changing levels of a particular nutrient or ion Neural - Nerve fibers stimulate an endocrine organ to release a hormone Hormone - Endocrine organ releases a hormone in response to another hormone being released.

Synergism - Both hormone have identical effects and work to amplify each other - Example: Growth Hormone and Gonadal Hormones Antagonism - One hormone opposes the action of another - Example: Glucagon vs Insulin Permissiveness - One hormone needs the presence of another to function optimally - Example: Thyroid hormone increases the number of epinephrine receptors

Pancreases - Insulin and Glucagon Heart - ANP Kidneys - Erythroprotein (Erythrocyte production)

Complex Carbs (Starches) - Gains and Vegtables Simple Carbs (Sugars) - Fruits, Sugarcane, Sugar Beets, Honey, and Milk. Sources of Fiber - Insoluble - Cellulose in vegtables; not digestible but adds roughage Souble - Pectin in apples and citrus fruits; reduces blood cholesterol levels; digestible Broken Down into Glucose - heavily used by Neurons and Erythrocytes which use it almost exclusively.

Saturated - meat diary foods and tropical oils - no double hydrogen bond on tails Unsaturated - Seeds, nuts, olives, and most vegetable oils - has at least one double bond Functions: Adipose tissue - protective cushions around organs; insulating body layer beneath skin; concentrated source of energy Prostaglandins - smooth muscle contractions; control of blood pressure; inflammation Cholesterol - stabilize membranes; precursor of bile salts and steroid hormones Essential Use in the Body: Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins; major fuel of hepatocytes and skeletal muscle; phospholipids are essential in myelin sheaths and all cell membranes

Complete protein (meat, milk, and fish) Incomplete protein (nuts, legumes, and cereals) Incomplete protein sources (i.e; legumes and cereals) can be combined to form complete proteins. Uses: structural materials: keratin, collagen, elastin, muscle proteins; most functional molecules: enzymes, some hormones.

(+) Positive = synthesis exceeds breakdown - normal in children and tissue repair) (-) Negative = Breakdown exceeds synthesis - (stress, burns, infection, injury)

4 ATP (Net gain of 2), 2 molecules of NADH become NAD+, 2 pyruvic acid

3 NADH + H (NADH), 1 FADH2, 2 CO2, 1 ATP (Per pyruvic acid - so twice per molecule of glucose)

- Glucose formation - noncarbohydrate sources (glycerol and amino acids) - Mainly in the liver - Protects against damage brought on by hypoglycemia

- The formation of glycogen. - Serves as long term storage for when glucose supplies exceed ATP synthesis - Mostly in liver and skeletal muslces

- The breakdown of Glycogen - Occurs when blood glucose drops.

1. Ingestion - intake of food. 2. Propulsion - Muscular movement of food through the digestive system. 3. Mechanical Digestion - Physical breakdown of food via physical manipulation - chewing, mixing, pummelling, etc. 4. Chemical Digestion - The degradation of food stuffs through the use of enzymes - used to break foods down to their chemical building blocks. 5. Absorption - The passage of chemical building blocks from food in the lumen into the blood stream. 6. Defecation - The elimination of indigestible products.

teeth (mechanical digestion), tongue (taste), gallbladder (bile secretion), salivary glands (carbohydrate digestion, moistens foods, antibodies, lysozyme, defensins), liver (bile via hepatocytes), pancreas (pancreatic juice - enzymes to help break down all sorts of food - neutralizes chyme entering duodenum).

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines

Peritoneum protects organs and allows them to flow over and around each other without friction - it contains a small amount of serous fluid inside the peritoneum cavity. Mesentary refers to the thin double layered peritoneum that surrounds the intestines it usually is rich with nerves and blood vessels. intraperitoneal refers to organs that reside within the peritoneum. retropertinal refers to organs that reside just outside the peritoneum.

- Submucosal nerve plexus - imbeded in the submucosa - innervates the smooth muscle layer Myenteric Nerve Plexus - Between layers of muscularis - motor innervates the muscularis layers secretomotor innervation of mucosa

Salivary Amylase (orginates from salivary glands in the oral cavity), pancreatic amylase (from the pancreas into duodenum), and brush boarder enzymes (from the vili lining intestinal walls in small intestine).

most are contransported in with Na+ into epithelial cells and than diffused into blood capillaries via facilitated diffusion Some monosaccharides simply diffuse straight into capillaries via facilitated diffusion

Salivary amylase begins breaking down carbs in the oral cavity; this continues until the amylase is deactivated by gastric acid Once in the duodenum, pancreatic amylase and brush boarder enzymes continue to degrade carbohydrates into monsaccharides

Pepsin (which starts out as Pepsinogen), Pancreatic Proteases, brush boarder enzymes

Digestion begins in the stomach as pepsinogen is released by chief cells in the stomach; when the pepsinogen mixes with the acidic stomach environment it forms pepsin. Pepsin is deactivated by the alkaline environment of the duodenum so pancreatic enzymes and brush boarder enzymes come in to continue to degrade proteins

Via cotransport with Na+ ions, and than into the capillaries via facilitated diffusion

Pancreatic Lipases

Lipids began digestion in the duodenum where they mix with bile salts and lecithin forming small clusters called micelles The lipids are than degraded by pancreatic lipases where the resulting fatty acids are than released to diffuse into epithelial cells The fatty acids are than coupled with proteins forming chylomicrons The chylomicrons then enter lacteals via endocytosis and are dumped into the blood via the thoracic duct

They aid in the spiraling of chyme through the small intestine.

- Pulmonary ventilation; also known as breathing in which air is moved into and out of the lungs. - External Respiration; Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are exchanged between the lungs and the blood. - Transport; Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide travel within the blood. - Internal Respiration; Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues

Respiratory Zone structures include all the sites of gas exchange; respiratory bonchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli. Conducting Zone Structures inclide all other respiratorry structures.

Nose; airway for breathing, moistens and warms air, filters and cleans inspired air, serves as a resonating chamber for speech, and houses olfactory receptors. Paranasal Sinuses; lightens weight of skull, helps to warm and moisten air, protects structures within the head from rapid temperature changes in the nasal cavity.

The larynx is a structure that connects to the hyoid bone and opens into the laryngopharynx; its involved in breathing, sound production, prevention of air escaping during stressful activity, and protecting the trachea against food aspiration Sound production - the larynx houses the vocal folds which are instrumental in production. Breathing - The larynx helps to seal off the esophagus during breathing preventing air from escaping into the esophagus. Food Aspiration - the closing of the larynx helps keep food out of the tracea. Air escape - works as spchinter to prevent air from flowing out

Trachea - Lined with circular cartiledge rings that help to keep the passage way open; also contains the carina at the point where the trachea splits into two the bronchi - involved heavily in coughing.