A Critical Examination Of The Models Of Essay Example

this essay is not to argue DID's validity, but rather examine two opposing models - posttraumatic and sociocognitive - and combine them for a more comprehensive explanation on what causes the disorder. The root question is what brings about and sustains DID; whether it's a response to early trauma or influenced by social aspects like cultural norms or therapeutic practices. Dissociative disorders involve separating an individual's consciousness, memories, or identity. DID is an infrequent yet severe dissociative disorder where two or more separate personalities exist within one person.

Maxmen (1986) states that every individual's personality is a complex entity, comprising of its own name, memories, behaviors, emotions, social interactions, work history, mental and physical disorders along with responses in psychological tests. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), distinguished by amnesia as described in DSM-IV (1994), refers to the inability to recall significant personal information beyond forgetfulness. Individuals suffering from DID commonly encounter interidentity amnesia where an identity cannot remember events remembered by another identity. However, not all identities experience this type of amnesia equally; some may face total or partial amnesia while others may encounter none at all. Moreover, interidentity amnesia could be either symmetrical or asymmetrical.

(Huntjens, Postma, Peters, Woertman, & Van der Hart, 2003) note that personalities within individuals with DID are often complex, and opposing pairs of personalities are common. Patients with DID typically exhibit three distinct types of personalities: the host personality, which performs everyday tasks and retains the patient's legal name; persecutory personalities, which exhibit aggressive and hostile behavior; and protector personalities which strive to avoid dangerous situations (Sue et al., 2003). Research suggests that DID is more prevalent in women and typically originates

in childhood years.

Based on research by Sue et al (2003), the occurrence of DID is linked to severe physical and sexual abuse during childhood. Psychoanalysts have utilized this finding as a framework for constructing theories, with most literature pertaining to DID centering on dissociation triggered by traumatic experiences in early life. This notion serves as the cornerstone of the posttraumatic model.

Although the origin of DID is disputed due to limited historical documentation, a surge in cases with numerous alter egos per case emerged during the 1970s and 1980s. Kilhstrom (2005) acknowledges that some skeptics attribute this increase to sensationalism from news outlets and scientific publications.

It is challenging to diagnose Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) due to its similarity in symptoms with other disorders including schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and bipolar disorder. Additionally, patients with DID are often not aware of their different identities until diagnosis as a result of interidentity amnesia (Powell ; Gee, 1999). There have been extensive studies conducted on the potential iatrogenic nature of DID diagnosis through hypnosis used in psychotherapy for treating DID patients. These studies have led to accusations of inducing the disorder (Powell ; Gee, 1999). The sociocognitive model of DID examines how media representation, psychosocial expectations and iatrogenesis may contribute towards constructing the disorder (Gleaves, 1996). However, Posttraumatic Model Psychodynamic theory suggests that dissociative disorders arise from repressing traumatic events from consciousness.

According to Sue et al (2003), when events cannot be completely repressed, dissociation of mental processes occurs, leading to the formation of independent personalities in cases of extreme dissociation, such as Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID). The Posttraumatic Model (PTM) builds on this theory, proposing that DID is a

distinct condition caused by childhood trauma, especially severe physical and sexual abuse (Powell ; Gee, 1999).

It can be viewed that the condition is a variation of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as it serves as a coping mechanism for early trauma, according to Micale and Lerner (2001). The advocates of this perspective will emphasize on the reporting of childhood sexual and physical abuse by DID patients. Draijer and Langeland's 1999 study revealed a positive correlation between the severity of sexual abuse, which involved penetration, several perpetrators, lasting more than a year, and the severity of dissociation. Therefore, the origin of DID derives from childhood trauma where the child typically uses the ability to dissociate as a highly effective defense against acute physical and emotional pain. This dissociative process permits separating thoughts, feelings, memories, and perceptions of traumatic experiences psychologically allowing the child to function as though the trauma did not occur.

The Post-Traumatic Model (PTM) of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) suggests that consciousness and memory are fragmented into distinct "alters". The number of alters identified by therapists varies widely, from a few to hundreds according to McHugh. Advocates for the PTM maintain that DID is linked to childhood trauma, as demonstrated in research studies.

The majority of individuals who suffer from dissociative disorders have experienced trauma before the age of nine, with this accounting for 98-99% of cases. Women are at a higher risk of experiencing sexual abuse as children and may therefore be more likely to develop DID. Although biological factors may also play a role, the recent increase in reports of DID is thought to be largely due to iatrogenic and sociocultural factors according to the

sociocognitive model. This model suggests that those with DID take on social roles in line with their aspirations and situational demands without any intention to deceive, resulting in high levels of "organismic involvement" where self and role become indistinguishable.

According to the SCM model, the media is used to reinforce role enactment, which leads to many of the characteristics of DID being based on cultural scripts and expectations. Chaves et al (1999) supports this idea. Additionally, Gleaves (1996) highlights that Spanos (1994) suggested iatrogenic factors play a crucial role in the development of DID based on limited DID diagnoses before 1970. Nevertheless, supporters of the PTM argue that previous clinicians were often unaware or failed to explore necessary features in DID individuals who frequently concealed or downplayed their symptoms.

The SCM argues that if DID characteristics are unclear before therapy and only become apparent during therapy, then iatrogenic factors may be a significant factor. According to Chaves et al (1999), alters in DID patients result from therapist influences, media presentations, and socio-cultural expectations. The PTM and SCM models offer a psychodynamic vs. social constructionism debate regarding the etiology and associations of DID. While some PTM and SCM suppositions might not be contradictory or mutually exclusive, the emphasis on DID's etiology and correlates varies significantly.

Chaves et al. (1999) put forth two models to account for alters in dissociative identity disorder (DID). The first model, known as the post-traumatic model (PTM), posits that severe child abuse and trauma naturally give rise to alters. On the other hand, the second model, called the sociocognitive model (SCM), suggests that alter development is attributed to therapist influences, media portrayals, and socio-cultural expectations.

Nonetheless, since childhood abuse is reported in 98-99% of DID cases, it can be inferred that childhood trauma significantly contributes to DID occurrence and may predispose individuals towards certain psychological states.

Individuals with Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) may exhibit dissociation tendencies, including having a strong imagination and being highly attentive. These traits can heighten sensitivity to societal norms of role-playing, suggestions, and cues from therapists in various social environments. Consequently, typical DID symptoms may only emerge after receiving therapy. Additionally, media representations of DID could impact the identities that arise within individuals afflicted with the disorder. Overly sensationalized depictions of DID may affect those who are susceptible to dissociation.

The media has a significant impact on establishing behavioral roles in different social scenarios, which could result in various types of alters emerging in social settings. Chaves et al. (1999) have observed an increase in the number of alters during therapy. Therapist cues and techniques could intensify and broaden dissociation tendencies, even if alters already exist. Therefore, the PTM could benefit from utilizing the SCM as a support system.

Dissociation and a susceptibility to it may stem from traumatic experiences in childhood, serving as a protective mechanism. However, the maintenance and exacerbation of dissociation can result from media influences, therapeutic practices, and societal expectations. Despite reviewing DID models, no significant evidence supports either one. Testing either model through direct manipulation of their respective root causes (childhood trauma or the enactment of multiple identities due to iatrogenic or sociocultural expectations) is difficult, given ethical and practical constraints.

The difficulty in operationalizing investigations lies with many of the accepted etiological agents, particularly child sexual and physical abuse, posited by the PTM.

In addition, it is challenging to objectively assess many of the accepted etiological agents, such as sociocultural expectations, posited by the SCM. Despite this, it is challenging to reject either model. While the PTM is the most extensively recognized and supported model, research has revealed that iatrogenic creation of more alters through therapy is possible (Powel ; Gee, 1999).

The PTM is backed by research on childhood trauma; however, it relies on retrospective information (Chaves et al, 1999). This essay suggests merging the two models to gain a broader perspective. Human experiences are often the result of a complex network of factors, and the same applies to DID. Although the disorder may originate from childhood trauma, we must not discount the impact of the social world and its complexities.

To summarize, the combination of the two models suggests that the PTM relies on the components of the SCM. Baron and Byrne (2003) support this perspective in their book, Social Psychology (10th ed.).

) Pearson Education, Inc. Chaves, J. F.

The following names are listed: Ganaway, G. K., Kirsch, I., Lilienfeld, S. O., and Lynn, S. They are all contained within a single HTML paragraph tag.

J., Powell, R.A., and Sarbin, T.R. published an article in 1999.

The Psychological Bulletin published an article titled "Dissociative Identity Disorder and the Sociocognitive Model: Recalling the Lessons of the Past" authored by Draijer, N. and Langeland, W. The publication is in volume 5, pages 507-523.

(1999) The relationship between childhood trauma, perceived parental dysfunction, and the emergence of dissociative symptoms among psychiatric inpatients was investigated in a study published in The American Journal of Psychiatry. Fourie conducted the study and observed evidence that

supports this connection. To read the article, access The American Journal of Psychiatry database with a retrieval date of August 31, 2005.

The second volume of Media Studies, as discussed by J. (2001), covers the subjects of production, audiences, and content.

Reexamination of evidence regarding The Sociocognitive Model of Dissociative Identity Disorder by Gleaves (1996) is available at Juta Education in South Africa.

The National Library of Medicine website provided a query that was accessed on August 12, 2005, as indicated by the following :

Retrieved from National Library of Medicine Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.

Huntjens, R. J.C., Postma, A., Peters, M. L. are the authors

The citation includes the names of Woertman, L. and Van der Hart, O. along with Kihlstrom's last name, and identifies the title of the article and its source, the Journal of Abnormal Psychology, along with the volume and page numbers. The date of publication is 2003 and the article discusses interidentity amnesia in dissociative identity disorder.On the Annual Reviews website, one can find details on Dissociative Disorders that were studied and released by F. in 2004. The source is available through the website and was last accessed on August 12, 2005.

In 1986, J. S. Maxmen authored a book called Essential Psychopathology.

The book's publisher in Canada is Penguin Books Canada Ltd, and the author's name is P. R. McHugh. The publication date, however, remains unknown. This information is enclosed within a paragraph tag.

On August 12, 2005, information about Multiple Personality Disorder (Dissociative Identity Disorder) was obtained from http://www.psycom.net/mchugh.

The citation "Micale, M. S. , & Lerner, P. (2001).Traumatic Pasts: History, Psychiatry, and Trauma in the Modern Age, 1870-1930." is enclosed in HTML

paragraph tags.The University Press in Cambridge published a work by Powell, R. A. and Gee, T. L.

(1999) The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry published a study that re-examined the evidence regarding hypnosis' impact on dissociative identity disorder. Furthermore, in 2003, another publication explored dissociative disorders and trauma.

On the Sidran Institute website, the publication "didbr.html" by R.J. Sternberg can be retrieved and accessed as of August 12, 2005.

(2003). Yale University. Sue, D. Cognitive Psychology (3rd ed.) published in the United States of America.

, Sue, D. W., and Sue, S. (2003) authored the 7th edition of "Understanding Abnormal Behavior".

Published by Houghton Mifflin Company in Boston.