AP World History Semester 1 – Flashcards
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What is the evidence that explains the earliest history of humans and the planet?
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Humans first appeared on Earth during the Paleolithic Era. The evidence of burial grounds, as well as stone tools and other items explains this. They show a general migration path from Africa outwards. These tools show that the groups were hunter-foragers and nomadic.
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What are the theories that interpret this evidence?
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Anthropologists infer through analogy between modern hunter-forager societies. - "Out of Africa" theory, which is interpreted to show that archaic Homo sapiens evolved to anatomically modern humans solely in Africa, between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago, that members of one branch of Homo sapiens left Africa by between 125,000 and 60,000 years ago, and that over time these humans replaced earlier human populations such as Neanderthals and Homo erectus - Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon (14C), a radioactive isotope of carbon.
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Where did humans first appear on Earth, and what were their society, technology, and culture?
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Humans first appeared on Earth during the Paleolithic Era, in the steppes of and savannah of Africa before migrating to Eurasia, the Americas, and Australia. Paleolithic societies were small and consisted of only 20 to 25 people known as kinship(group of relatives). Paleolithic bands were nomadic. technology was very low and fire was the only used tool. No formal chiefs, kings, bureaucrats, soldiers, nobles, or priests. Men were hunters and women were gatherers. Both men and women were equal.
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Describe earliest humans' technology & tools
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The humans used fire as a main tool everywhere, from hunting and foraging, as well as for defense and warmth. The earlier humans used a variety of stone weapons for their specific environments and food they hunted.
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Religious beliefs and practices of Ancient people
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● Shamanistic ● Polytheist mostly ● Most believed in gods of Nature. Like a God for Winter and Summer. ● They drew cave paintings to worship the Gods ● The cavemen buried their dead because they believed in an afterlife ● Rulers were shamans also
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How did the earliest humans' society help them procure enough supplies to survive?
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● The cavemen divided work among males and females ● Males hunted for food like Mammoths and Aurochs. ● Females gathered plants and fruits to eat. ● Diet tend to be mostly plants ● Women tend not to give birth to a lot of children because they did not want to feed too many mouths. ● They also tend not to have too many children close to age to one another. ● There was gender parallelism in the labor
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What were the long-term demographic, social, political, and economic effects of the Neolithic Revolution?
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● PATRIARCHY: women were now forced to spend their time rearing children, spending time at home, responsible to bear children as well (to work the fields) ● specialization because of how much more time people had ● agricultural based economy ● people forced to a simple diet of which crops they would be planting (which does last into Europe until the discovery of the americas!) ● population increase (exponentially!), more food, more laborers ● political: because of the larger populations, there would be more competition between groups of people, more incentive to make more food and "be wealthy" ● creation of villages (!! which grows into chiefdoms and centralized ● moving towards places with fertile land, SEDENTARY folks (increase) ● The working of gold, copper, silver, bronze, and (later) iron became an industry that provided jewelry, weapons, and tools (economic).
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How did pastoral societies resemble or differ from early agricultural societies?
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● hunting and gathering vs. farming ● gender parallelism: women had equal importance as men (hunters would only make up 30% of their diet but it would still be a lot of food); BUT, in the neolithic age, women were still kind of important to continue the lineage (have kids to work and pass on family names, remember: creation of chiefdoms with the rev.) ● more disease and famine because of animal husbandry (didn't need animals to gather food) ● creation of villages! rather than those small kin-groups ● less transportation because of sedentary societies (w the rev.); didn't move around as much
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Where did pastoralism persist even after the Neolithic Revolution?
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● it persisted in areas where the environment was not suitable for agricultural use, ○ like mountains ○ rivers that would possibly overflow frequently, ○ dry arid deserts and ○ savannas ● mesopotamia (fertile crescent), egypt, indus river valley region (examples)
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How did the Neolithic Revolution affect human societies economically & socially?
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● PATRIARCHY (specialization+women were kept at home=less opportunity to assert themselves in the changing world) ● CHIEFDOMS (carrying lineage → setup leadership for many civilizations and societies for centuries) ● TECH ADVANCEMENTS (first as a way to decrease amount of human labor, but turned into something more, a way to increase interests and other apply to other aspects of society (not just food)) ● textile industry blooms ● ride of elites with growing population of societies
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Why did the Neolithic Revolution start (at all)?
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● Development of technology ○ Made the possibility of farming easier ● Growing Population ○ Settling down and farming food allowed for a larger population growth ● Experimenting with plants in free time ● Need for social and political organization ● It was an accident
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Where did the Neolithic Revolution first transform human populations? (Plural answer)
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● Fertile Crescent ○ Mesopotamia ● Nile river valley ○ Egypt ● Indus river valley ● Populations started off sickly and small, but with the development of agriculture populations grew to great numbers
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What foodstuffs were developed or domesticated during the Neolithic Revolution?
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● Domesticated plants and animals ● Grains ○ Wheat ○ Barley ○ Rice ● Animals ○ Cows ○ Dogs ○ Sheep ○ Goats
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What labor adjustments did humans make in order to facilitate the Neolithic Revolution?
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● Trained/ used animals for farming ● Plow-based farming replaces hoe farming. When plows were employed, men were better suited to pull them, and the women would not have been able to leave the children, plus they were pregnant all the time and unable to perform strenuous labor. Men took over farming roles ● Improvements in farming/labor= bad news for women ● Men become less important in the house when specialization in jobs began to develop. Use their free time to assume powererful roles and shape society to benefit men. ● Civilization began to be seen as conquering nature, and women were associated with nature..-----> men should be in charge
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What were the environmental effects of the Neolithic Revolution?
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- Soil was overused. - Deforestation occurred to make more land available for agriculture - Overgrazing - Animals became more suited to human needs due to animal husbandry
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What effects did pastoralism & agriculture have on the food supply?
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❏ At first the food supply was unreliable due to a lot of energy devoted to crop production ❏ The food supply slowly became more reliable and created surplus ❏ In certain regions of the world, food options were limited ❏ Circle of life: Stationary farm life---more kids---- greater need for food---More food means more kids can grow up and farm--- kids who grow up have kids--- their kids need more food.... ❏
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What were the social effects of the increased food supply caused by increase of agriculture?
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➔ Created class distinctions, the people with more land and therefore more food were on the higher end of the social hierarchy ➔ Increased population ➔ More leisure time ➔ Feasting increased loyalty to leadership
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What technological innovations are associated with the growth of agriculture?
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● Preservation of food surplus ● Irrigation ● City planning ● Domestication/animal husbandry ● metallurgy
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The Development of Early Agricultural: Pastoral, and Urban Societies
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- Pastoral societies moved with their herds which they used for their meat, milk and pelts; they moved as the herds of animals needed to constantly have a suitable land to feed off. Some later became the masters of the horse. - Urban societies were stationary, as they discovered that agriculture provided a sustainable food source. They were forced to be stationary due to necessity of protecting their fields. Therefore they often fortified their towns to protect from invaders.
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What is a 'civilization,' and what are the defining characteristics of a civilization?
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- Involves large group of people - Develop in power vacuum and in suitable geographical mosaic - Supports at least small group that does not produce food (food surplus) - Some organization - Clear ruler/elites
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How did civilizations develop and grow more complex before 600 BCE?
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- Agricultural Revolution allowed for a surplus of food, which in turn increased the population - The food surplus freed more people to pursue other interests, such as developing technology, art, etc. - People settled down, which also allowed them to develop architecture.
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What were the effects of this increasing complexity?
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- Cities and empires were created - People were divided into different classes - Population grew extremely quickly - Improvements in technology occurred - More people could do something other than food production - Trade was able to spread further, meaning more diverse ideas
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Where did the earliest civilizations develop, and why did they develop in those locations?
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- The earliest civilizations developed around Mesopotamia's "fertile crescent" because of its habitable climate and the hospitality of the land for agriculture. - Soon after, they spread outward into northern Africa, along rivers because of the ready supply of water for the agriculture and the rich soil.
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What is a "state?" Who ruled the early states, and which segments of society usually supported the ruler?
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- A state is a nation or territory considered as an organized political community under one government. - Mesopotamia had city-states, each ruled by a king; engaged in nearly constant warfare. This frequent battling weakened the states, allowing for easy conquering by outside forces such as the Assyrians. - Egypt: had states/chiefdoms, were combined in one territory, all ruled by Pharaoh, who was seen as a god in human form, supported by priests.
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Why were some early states able to expand and conquer neighboring states?
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- Some states had advantages such as better agricultural potential due to their position along a suitable river, they had better means of communication, and most importantly they were unified - Access to good crops and animals was also useful - Fragmented states were often absorbed by the more unified ones. - Due to the endless need for expansion, these states conquered their less powerful neighbors, absorbing, killing or putting the populations to work.
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Give four examples of early empires in the Nile & Tigris/Euphrates River Valleys.
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Egyptians - Nile flooded regularly, united and imperial, Nile allowed for easy transportation, ruler = god; Nubia - Southern part of the nile, contact with Egyptians, at one point they took over Egypt, famous for bowmen; Mesopotamian - City states, Euphrates/Tigris much more irregular and destructive than Nile, Frequent warfare led people to go to cities, which fragmented society, which made them easy to get conquered;Assyrians - Conquer/unite Mesopotamia, came from north, very violent.
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What role did pastoral civilizations play vis a vis empires?
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- They were often conquered and pushed out of their land. - They traded and occasionally destroyed empires. - Pastoral civilizations were different from nomads: pastoral societies follow their herds, while nomads just wandered around and gathered.
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What methods did rulers use to unify their populations?
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- Some rulers utilized charisma and generosity to gain power, such as the gentle priest-kings of the first sedentary civilizations. - Others used an apparent godly origin to justify their right to rule, an example being the Egyptian pharaohs. - Finally some such as Assyrians used military power and very harsh rule to keep people in line.
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What architectural forms did early civilizations produce?
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- Defenses in Mesopotamia (walls) - Temples to gods. - Irrigation system - Sewage systems in Indus valley civilizations - City planning
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Which social strata encouraged the development of art in ancient civilizations?
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The ruling and religious elites. Rulers liked to have paintings/poems written about their achievements, being depicted as gods. The oldest preserved story from this time period is the Epic of Gilgamesh.
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What forms of writing developed in ancient civilizations?
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One of the earliest forms of writing was cuneiform developed in mesopotamia, which used symbolic figures made up of lines and angles to communicate meaning. From this came other, similar writing styles such as hieroglyphics. It was very useful in record-keeping and the formation of bureaucracy.
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Another writing form was the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which were written on papyrus scrolls and carved into stone and walls
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What was the relationship between literature and culture?
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- Cuneiform script was used mainly to keep records, while fictional tales were spread through word of mouth - The Egyptians used hieroglyphs, as well as other scripts, to record literature and history. Wrote on papyrus scrolls and tomb walls - In tombs of the Pharaoh, there was often writing on the walls that would help the Pharaoh get to the afterlife. - In temples, there was also writing and pictures of gods and goddesses as well as the Pharaoh
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What pre-600 BCE religions strongly influenced later eras?
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- Early on, part-time shamans led religious ceremonies. Different groups of Paleolithic people worshipped a wide group of different deities. - New religions often adapt to the old custom of the region, therefore customs embeded from the old religions got transferred in some form or the other to new ones
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How "big" were the pre-600 BCE trading regions?
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Trade was relatively restricted, due to the lack of domesticated animals, and civilizations normally traded in small, local circles. Some utilized the land to allow further trade, such as the Egyptians, who used the Nile river to travel deep into Africa, where they were able to exchange goods and ideas with the Nubians.
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How did social and gender identities develop pre-600 BCE?
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- Early nomadic groups were very egalitarian, but the Agricultural Revolution caused a split between the genders - Women were given a household role, and their role as child-bearers grew - Men specialized in more powerful and prestigious roles which allowed them more free time to create social roles and shape values and culture to their benefit. The heavier work of agricultural life also elevated men because they were stronger - Because women had to take care of the house and the children, they had no say in this development
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How did religions help strengthen political, economic, and cultural ties within societies?
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Religion had helped strengthened societies for example influence in trade which led to a better economic stability. As well as cultural ties such as the Japanese using the Confucian and Buddhist beliefs and creating Shintoism.
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How did religions promote a sense of unity?
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developements of existing religous traditions provided a bond with people and an ethical code
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What are the characteristics and core teachings of Judaism?
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Judaism was developed with the codification of the Hebrew scriptors which also showed mesopotamian influences. it was also monotheism
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What are the characteristics and core teachings of Hinduism(s)?
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Some characteristic of Hinduism is God is One, Brahman No Mobility for social class , the worship of many gods, including Brahma as supreme being, a caste system, belief in reincarnation
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What is a "universal religion?" Where did universal religions exist by 600 CE?
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The universal religion is a where belief system emerged and spread, often asserting universal truths.
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What are the characteristics and core teachings of Buddhism?
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Some of the characteristics of Buddhism is the Social Class, Eightfold Path, The Four Noble Truth. The core teaching of Buddhism is from Siddhartha Gautama that life is permeated with suffering caused by desire, that suffering ceases when desire ceases, and that enlightenment obtained through right conduct, wisdom, and meditation releases one from desire, suffering, and rebirth/ reicarnation. Mobility of Social class after rebirth/reicarnation
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How and where did Buddhism spread by 600 CE?
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Buddhism was spread from India. Ashoka a Indian emperor had sent Buddhist missionaries from India and taught the belief Buddhism.
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What are the characteristics and core teachings of Confucianism?
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Confucianism's core beliefs and writings originated in the writings and lessons of Confucius and were elaborated by key disciple whose sought to promote social harmony by outlining proper rituals and social relationships for all people in China including the rulers.
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What are the characteristics and core teachings of Daoism?
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- A balance between humans and nature - Similar to Buddhism in the belief of detachment from the world in order to reach immortality - Human ritual has the ability to change nature. If one can control it, there is power to be had in nature, however if one does not know enough, there can be detrimental effects - Led to the beginning of scientific methods such as observation, experimentation, description and classification - Daoist rulers should enforce morals and virtues upon his/her people
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What are the characteristics and core teachings of Christianity?
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- Divine love - Importance of faith - Important figure = Jesus - Christianity is monotheistic - God is all-knowing - All people are sinners, which separates us from God
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How and where did Christianity spread by 600CE?
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- Rulers, such as Charlemagne, converted the conquered peoples - Christianity trickled down from rulers to civilians - Christianity was spread along the silk road through the use of monasteries; however, compared to Buddhism, it was less successful - Roman Empire (especially the Holy Roman Empire), Ethiopia, Armenia, Kiev, the Franks
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What are the main characteristics of Greco-Roman philosophy and science?
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- Used logic and objective questioning to solve problems, as opposed to the use of gods and religion - The scientific method developed from Greco-Roman philosophy as a way to investigate the workings of nature - Attempted to view the universe as parts of a whole; philosophers developed the concept of atoms as building blocks of matter
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How did religions affect gender roles in their respective societies?
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- Women became the teachers of religion inside the home - In Buddhist cultures, nunneries were used as places of education for women as well as nurseries - In Islamic cultures, men practiced polygamy, and women's rights were often limited.
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How did humans' reliance on the natural world influence religion?
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Shamanism and animism continued to shape the lives of people within and outside of core civilizations, because of their daily reliance on the natural world. A Religion such as Zoroastrianism shaped its whole religion based on natural elements such as fire, water, and earth. Part of their worship including praying to the fire as a symbol of their gods. Also see Christianity and Judaism.
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How did humans relate to their deceased ancestors?
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Ancestors were revered by almost all societies. However, this respect for ancestors were different in places it happened in. For example, in places like China, ancestors were considered extremely important as filial piety was heavily incorporated in the Chinese culture. However, in Europe, ancestors were only respected and held highly for legitimacy reasons such as who owned what or what belonged to who.
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How did art and culture develop to 600 CE? It developed into distinctive differences in literary works, drama, architecture, and sculpture. Before this time, art was very distinct to certain places, as was culture. However, after the 600's when culture starts to become interchanged from place to place, art becomes blended as well. To gain specific information of art and culture development, you can go to this really great website: http://www.freeman-pedia.com/classical-600-bce-600-ce/
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What literary works influenced later eras?
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Religious based books were the most important books of this time, books that still have prominent roles in societies today. Perhaps the greatest literary works of this time period, that still had influence going on after 600 CE, were the bible and the torah.
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How did different societies' architectural styles develop?
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Tradition affected the shape and looks of architecture. Along with tradition, other factors such as environment and even religious practices/beliefs affected architectural styles. For the Greeks, temples were not only places to worship the gods but also impressive symbols of their society and culture. They were built as focal points on the highest ground of every city in Greece and the conquered territories around the Mediterranean. Beneath the temples spread public meeting places, civic buildings, gymnasiums, stadiums, theaters, and housing.Today, the remains of Greek cities can be found in Italy, Sicily, and Turkey. One of the reasons that they have lasted so long is that the Greeks built their temples, amphitheaters, and other major public buildings with limestone and marble. They perhaps use these materials due to the environment they live in.
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What examples of syncretism reflect the Classical Era to 600 CE?
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Romanism and Hellenism are examples of syncretism in this time period.
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What is an "empire," and what were empires' common characteristics during the Classical Era?
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An empire is an extensive group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, for example an emperor. Some characteristics that empires have are: leaders, taxes, army, factions, large population, trading, and social hierchy.
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How did the number & size of Classical empires compare to the Ancient Era?
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● Classical empires were much larger in size when compared to the Ancient Era empires. Classical empires competed for resources and came in conflict with one another, also built powerful military machines, and administrative institutions that were capable of organizing human activities. ● They also experience environmental, social and economic problems when they over-exploited their lands and subjects and permitted excessive wealth to concentrate in the hands of privileged classes.
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What were the most influential of the Classical Era empires?
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some of the most influential of the Classical Era empires were the Persian Empires, Qin and Han Dynasties, Maura and Gupta Empires, Hellenistic and Roman empires, and Phoenician and Greek colonization.
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What techniques did Classical empires create to administer their territories?
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Centralized governments, elaborate legal systems, and bureaucracies. For example, the persians used setraps to govern their large empire, China under Han Dynasty used bureacracy
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What new political methods were created in order to rule the larger empires in the Classical Era?
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● In order to organize their subjects the rulers created administrative institutions including centralized governments, elaborate legal systems, and bureaucracies (such as in CHina, Persia, Rome or South Asia). ● Emperors were in complete control as well.
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How did imperial governments let their population know that the government was "in charge?"
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● Imperial government's projected military power over larger areas using a variety of techniques including: diplomacy; developing supply lines; building fortifications, defensive walls, and roads; and drawing new groups of military officers and soldiers from the local populations or conquered peoples. ● government would make them pay taxes or do other things and if they did not people would be punished ● the edicts with rules and laws that were strict allowed populations to know the government was in charge
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What role did trade play in creating and maintaining empires?
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● Trading allowed for empires to obtain goods and resources from other empires from different regions that those empires needed to advance technologically ● allowed them to build and maintain roads and issue currencies
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What unique social and economic characteristics existed in empires?
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● gender roles ● labor systems ● hierarchies for example China and their confucianistic beliefs cause a social hierarchy where people have to follow those higher than them ● Civil Service Exams ● Family Relations for example, Confucianism heavily enforced family relationships
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What function did imperial cities perform?
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● cities served as trading centers ● public performances of religious rituals ● political administration for states and empires (for example, Persepolis, Chang'an, Pataliputra, Athens, Carthage, Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople, or teotihuacan)
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What social classes and occupations were common in empires?
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● Cultivators ● laborers ● slaves ● artisans ● merchants ● elites and other variations of caste groups ● Priest class
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What labor systems provided the workers for Classical Empires?
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● slavery/Prisoners of War ● rents and tributes ● peasant communities ● family and household production
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Describe the gender and family structures of Classical Era empires.
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● Patriarchy continued to shape gender and family relations in all imperial societies of this period. ● women would take care of children and normally stay at home while the men did almost everything else
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What caused Classical Empires to decline, collapse, or transform into something else?
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● overextension ● excessive use of resources ● corruption ● external threats ● internal peasant attacks ● some examples: Roman, Han, Mauryan and Gupta empires (created political, cultural, and administrative difficulties that they could not manage)
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what were the environmental and social weaknesses of Classical Empires?
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● imperial government caused environmental damage such as deforestation, soil erosion and silted rivers. For example the Nile river would flood causing environmental issues for Egypt ● concentrated too much wealth in the hands of the elites which led to social tension and economic difficulties
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What external weaknesses contributed to the end of Classical Empires?
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● security issues along the borders (threat of invasion) ● external problems which resulted from security issues along the frontier ● Threat of invasion came from Northern China and Xiongnu; Gupta and the White Huns; or among Romans, Parthians, Sasanids, Kushan
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How did Classical era trade networks compare to Ancient era networks?
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Classical Era, 300 BC to 600CE, The trade networks expanded more, the silk road became more prevalent, though after the Roman empire fell in 476 CE, only the eastern half of the empire, the byzantine empire, stayed connected to international trade networks, more and more trading occurring in the Indian ocean. b) Sub Saharan trade network starts building up more, Alexander the Great's conquests brought Greek civilization into contact with eastern ideas. He conquered all the way to India, spreading the Hellenistic culture, and since he'd conquered everything that was anything except China, their ideas merged with the Hellenistic ones.
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What forces contributed to the changes between the two eras?
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native sub-saharans hunting and gathering intermarried with the bantu and learned how to farm-, brought iron smelting to sub-saharans as well as iron weapons to replace wood, stone, and bone (since the bantu had iron, they had the advantage, and were the teaching group),
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brought their language to the click-speaking sub-saharans, Alexander the Great's conquests brought Greek civilization into contact with eastern ideas. conquered al ll the way to India, spreading the Hellenistic culture, and since he'd conquered everything that was anything except China, ideas merged with Hellenistic ones. Selucid empire, from the Mediterranean to
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Bactria,linking from Bactria to the sea, and they are connected to India through Bactria. Ptolemaic empire, in Egypt watched over land trade and sea trade, in the Mediterranean and in the Red sea , Diseases also spread, small pox
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What was commonly traded along these trade networks?
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Silk and spices, porcelain from china, gold from africa, metal from african, slaves to rome, animals to rome, ● Desert salt was an important trading commodity. ● They exported forest products, kola nuts, palm oil, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, ivory, emeralds, and gold. And salt. They imported cloth, glass, olive oil, wine, brass, iron, and copper. Ideas were traded along trade routes, Buddhism to China and Southeast Asia by both land and sea-, Hinduism spreads to Southeast Asia through sea trade routes, across the bay of bengal,- Christianity becomes dominant and Rome and goes to Mesopotamia, Iran, Persia, Ethiopia Zoroastrianism to India, influence on Christianity and Judaism
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How did trade & communication networks develop by 600 CE?
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● they advanced bit over the silk road, but things kinda stayed the same, ● Islam not created yet, camel trades in africa not happening yet, pretty much just Indian ocean trade and silk road trade to Byzantinum because roman empire had fallen in 476, ● But Alex the Great did expand europe into Middle asia and helped get things going more between eastern europe and asia.
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What technologies enabled long-distance overland and maritime trade?
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● In Rome's heyday they were using water transfers called aqueducts, improved roads a ton so it enabled trade much better, and better ships were created i China, ● Asians started using the Arabian Dhow, using sails, longer distance trade
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Besides the physical goods, what intangibles also traveled along trade networks?
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● Beliefs and religions such as Confucianism, Buddhism, Islam, etc. influenced foreigners because of merchants and some missionaries.
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What crops spread along Classical Era trade networks?
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mainly it was rice and cotton
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What effects did diseases have on Classical empires?
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● Due to interaction between regions and people, diseases were able to spread. ● However, they were mostly localized. ● Diseases were not well documented during this time period.
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How did religions spread along trade networks, and how did the trade networks affect the religions?
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● Missionaries and merchants spread religions (most importantly Buddhism and Christianity) from their origin. ● Spread along land and sea trade routes. ● The areas or regions that adopted them would apply their own culture to their practice of religion.
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How did trade networks in the post-Classical Era compare to the Classical
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- trade more limited in post classical era due to fewer advancements in technology - the indian ocean trade began in 800 CE and required a good amount of information of how monsoons worked as well as how to sail a boat/make a boat. Also they were more land based in the post classical era such as the silk road trade that began in around 200 BC, and although it continued throughout the classical era, it stretched to other types of trade as well
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What new technologies, governmental policies, and merchant activities accompanied these developments?
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Tech: compass; boats Gov. Policies: Ottomans limited who was allowed in due to missionary activity Japan only let the Dutch in due to missionary activity Merch. Activities: spread of islam through the indian ocean trade
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What role did pastoral and nomadic groups play in these trade networks?
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- Pastoral groups sometimes became involved in large scale trade if they were unable to remain isolated - Their land was organized and bettering farming techniques were used to grow more food for trade purposes, beyond the normal nourishment of the village or city. - Nomadic groups sometimes became merchants themselves, due to their mobile cultural and familiarity with the routes. - Other times, they provided stations along routes for travelers to stop and get supplies. For example, they would station themselves at intervals along the Silk Road in Eurasia and the Sand Road in Africa.
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How did the physical size of post-Classical trade networks compare to the previous era?
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The physical size of the trade increased because: -trade was occurring over both land and sea - The routes became wider and longer. - More travelers passed through than before, and the sea routes and roads spread to farther-reaching areas of the world.
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What Classical era trade networks continued during the post-classical era, and which new cities were added during the post-Classical era?
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Continued: mediterranean trade silk road New trade: Indian Ocean (began 800AD) Trans-saharan trade (began
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What new technologies enabled the growth of inter-regional trade networks?
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Aided merchants travelling at sea: - the compass - knowledge of winds - larger/sturdier ships Increased Food Production: - three-field system - better plows Improved Production: - pottery, clothing, jewelry, and paper
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What factors encouraged commercial growth in the post-classical era?
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-The display of wealth through luxury items -religion (missionaries) -silver/gold -desire to gain land/power (portugal and east coast of Africa)
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a) How did trans-Eurasian trade as a whole develop during the post-Classical era?
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Overall, from 600 to 1450 CE, trans-eurasian trade was generally expanded and revitalized -Mongol takeover of china increased stability -Islamic empire encouraged trade, made area safe to trade in
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What were the effect of migration in the post-classical era?
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-Spread new ideas and languages -Caused environmental changes and depletion -Caused conflicts between ethnic groups -Created new ways of life and peoples due to blending
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What basic understandings of environment and technology did post-classical traders need to conduct their business?
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-Needed to know about trade winds if using ships -Weather patterns if overland -Transportation technology -Technology which would impact business like printing press, increased demand for certain products
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What were the environmental effects of migration in the post-classical era?
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As new populations arrived in new areas, they often brought technology that was more advanced than was previously present there. This advancement often meant that previously untapped natural resources like iron and forests were depleted, and agricultural intensity increased. The latter two of these changes led to signifigant environmental effects as soil which had previously been held down by trees was loosened up, and nutrients were taken up by crops, casusing desertification in several areas.
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a) What were the linguistic effects of migration in the post-classical era?
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Whenever a group migrated to a new area, they brought their old language with them, which usually blended with the languages of the region and formed wholly new ones which were still related to the original. This led to the creation of language families such as the celtic language family in the british isles, the bantu language family in africa, and the use of sanskrit in india
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a) How did trade networks as a whole develop in the post-classical era?
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-Overall they expanded and were revitalized -Increased stability and interest in trade meant that people wanted to trade more -New empires encouraged trade and the spread of technology -Beginnings of middle class and the upper class of the time wanted luxury goods from elsewhere
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a) Why and where did Muslim trade networks change in the post-classical era?
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In the arabian sea and across the sahara and mediterranean, muslim trade networks expanded for a variety of reasons. -the muslim faith encouraged trade and travel, and that the pilgrimage to mecca which all muslims were expected to take brought people of the same faith and -shared language between all muslim merchants increased the ease of trade by removing language barriers, allowing trade with muslim communities worldwide
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o). What institutions did merchants create to foster both trade and cultural diffusion in the post-classical era?
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Guilds were the main establishment of merchants to foster trade diffusion throughout Europe and Africa. The banking industry flourished mostly in Italian city states. Also, the Catholic institutions and universities helped facilitate the exchange of language, culture and religion to and from their homelands.
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p). How well did post-classical societies know and understand each other?
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Gradually as travel became more common, the culture and practices of other peoples became more understood. Over time people became more bilingual with the languages of their trading partners.
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q). How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of literary, artisitic and cultural traditions?
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Art, literature, music and culture were spread through merchants, so for the most part each state's culture continued developing independently. For example in China, dynasties developed their own cultures with little help from Europe.
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r). How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions?
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Science and technology began spreading faster than art and culture. New things were invented like the compass, better ship designs, iron melting techniques, clocks/time, better plows and other ideas were traded between Europe, Asia and Africa.
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s). What were the biological effects of post-classical trade?
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Many mixed races started coming about. There were many inter-racial marriages, rape and mistresses breaking the norm of isolated gene pools. New traits were exchanged and crossed through regions. Due to this many immunities and predispositions to certain diseases were shared across populations.
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t). What new foods, crops, and agricultural practices diffused in the post-classical era?
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New technologies like the moldboard plow, iron plow, three-field system and irrigation improved all crop yields. New foods came about like grain, sugarcane, spices, citrus fruits, asian rice and potatoes. Many other plants and flowers were put on display in gradens and botanical museums.
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u). What diseases and pathogens also spread via post-classical trade networks?
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There were a lot of diseases that spread along the trade routes, but the most notable was the Bubonic Plague, which was also known as the Black Death. It spread along the Silk Roads and coastal routes and in many places throughout Europe caused an epidemic
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a) How did state formations develop in the post-classical era?
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State formations demonstrated advanced innovation, such as agricultural production, and diversity in various regions. Some empires that exemplified the development are how the Islamic empire expansion created the caliphate, or the growth of states in mesoamerican and andean areas.
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b) How did post-classical states avoid the mistakes of classical empires in the regions where classical empires collapsed?
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Some empires, like the Song, Tang, and byzantine emps, had methods to improve their systems that were influenced by certain factors. They combined sources of power(ex: patriarchy/religion) with methods fixing a flaw in their system, such as tax systems or tribute systems.
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c) What new forms of governance emerged in the post-classical era?
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Some were islamic abbasids, delhi sultanates, mongol khanates, and city-states in numerous empires on the afroeurasian region(such as europe, sumerians, mayans, and etc.)
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D.)How and where did governmental diffusion occur during the post classical era?
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Some states synthesized local and foreign traditions to form a hybrid of sorts, like chinese ideas spreading to japan and korea and meshing with their culture
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E.)How did states in the Americas develop in the post-classical era?
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The Mayans in the americas developed a system of many city states like greece, while the aztec and the inca both developed imperial systems with a divine ruler like Rome
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F.)What technological and cultural exchanges did states encourage in the post-classical era?
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Interregional conflicts and contacts between empire spread culture and technology, for example the wooden-block printing press from Korea to China
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Key Concept 3.3 a) What were the overall worldwide economic trends in the post-classical era?
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● Overall, trade and interactions increased in this time period. The mongols dominated the majority of the eastern hemisphere and were able to connect different regions together through mongol trade. The mongols also force conquered people into labor and created tribute states. ● On the other side of the world, the incas, aztecs and mayans relied their land and agriculture to produce food to feed their population and use their surpluses for trade. ● Also, this was the period of islam penetration so merchants brought the religion of islam, as well as trade.
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Key Concept 3.3 a) What new innovations affected agriculture in the postclassical era?
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In the western hemisphere, the aztec, mayan, and incan civilization created technologies that helped them manipulate their land to increase crop production. They had chinampas (floating gardens), canals, dikes, causeways and bridges to manipulate water flow and help increase their agricultural productivity. Also these civilizations were able to drain swamps, terrace hillsides, and develop an irrigation system to help grow more crops and were able to have surpluses!!
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a) How and why did crops migrate during the post-classical era?
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● The mesoamerican civilizations were able to produce surpluses of crops through their effective use of land, and with these surpluses, they were able to trade their extra crops for goods and stuff with other civilizations (maya and aztec mostly) ● In the eastern hemisphere, crops were able to migrate through mongol trade across asia by the silk road. The mongols used horses to help them deliver goods and crops quicker (pony express).
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a) How did textile and porcelain production develop in the post-classical era?
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Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; industrial production of iron and steel expanded in China.
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E) Why did some post-classical urban areas decline?
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● Invasion from nomad groups ● Spread of disease that came along with the rise of commerce
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F) Why did some post-classical urban areas prosper and grow?
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● Increased role of trade. The continuation of the Silk Road, the new Trans Saharan trade route, and the Indian Ocean Trade allowed for specialization and long distance trade that led to the spread of new technologies and cultural diffusion. ● Tang and Song China overwent a steady food supply with rice cultivation allowing them to increase population drastically exceeding that of europe
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G) What roles did cities play in their societies during the post-classical era?
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Cities, prospered by the growth of population, provided people with active market life and commerce In China government helped poverty by distributing public services Cities were religious and commercial centers, such as the cultural mecca of Islam in Spain, Cordoba
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H) How did social and labor systems develop during the post-classical era?
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China adopted the merit based system for officials, encouraged women's education, tribute system With the emergence of feudalism in BYzantium, the church developed a hierarchical society with the help of kings and powerful landlords. Large scale conversions to rising religions. Islam
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i) What pre-existing labor systems continued through the post-classical era?
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One of the dominant labor systems was slavery. Although trade was not established enough to spread many slaves among countries, within countries it already had taken a hold. In African societies, slavery was a way to punish criminals as well as a way to have labor done. In lands the Mongols took over, they forced natives to perform labor. In China, an entire class of people was in charge of labor.
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j) How did social and gender hierarchies develop in the post- classical era?
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Each region's social and gender hierarchy developed to create distinct societies. In Western Europe, the feudal system made it so there was a sharp divide between lords or priests and the serfs or labor system. Women continued to have little to no freedom. In the Byzantine Empire, there continued to be divides between the upper class or ruling family and the common people. Chinese culture caused the hierarchy to develop as the ruling dynasty was considered higher or better than everyone else. Women were given no voice and were thought to be inferior to men. In the Islamic world, there was slightly less of a divide between men and women because of the Muslim beliefs.
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k) What new labor forms developed in the post- classical era?
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Serfdom in Europe and Japan and the elaboration of the mit'a in the Inca Empire. Demand for slaves also increased. As the trade networks connected more societies, the slave trade increased.
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l) How did some gender roles and family structures change in the post- classical era?
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The diffusion of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Neo-Confucianism often led to significant changes in gender relations and family structure
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Describe the degree of global 'interconnection' after 1500 CE compared to before 1500.
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After 1500 the world was more interconnected, occurred b/c of the discovery of the Americas. It globalized trade and connected both hemispheres of the world, as well as Asia, Europe and Africa
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What were the overall effects of this change in global interconnectedness?
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World became more connected, regions worked together to form trade networks (Ex. Slave Trade, European presence in Asia)
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How did the global trade network after 1500 CE affect the pre-existing regional trade networks?
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(Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, trans-Saharan, Silk Routes) Didn really affect them, Europeans had more of a presence in Indian Ocean trade, but the rest were unaffected for the most part
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What technical developments made transoceanic European travel & trade possible?
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Improvements to ships and navigation. Ex. the compass, triangular sails
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Where did those developments originate?
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Mostly Asia, then spread to Muslim Empire then to Europe
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What were the major notable transoceanic voyages between 1450-1750 CE?
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Christopher Columbus discovering the Americas Vasco da Gama sailing around Africa to Indian Ocean (first EU involvement in Indian Ocean trade)
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Where did Zheng He and the Chinese Treasure Fleets travel?
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Throughout the Indian Ocean trading network
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Why did Portugal begin longer maritime voyages ca. 1430 CE?
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They were looking for a greater influence over world trade
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What effect did Columbus' travels have on Europeans?
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First lating connection between Europe and the Americas
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What originally motivated Europeans to travel across the northern Atlantic?
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Looking for faster way to access Indian Ocean trading network
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How did the new global connections affect the peoples of Oceania and Polynesia?
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Since they were discovered by the EU´s, they were subject to imperial rule. Europeans brought disease w/ them, left when they realized there was not much economic opportunity there
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What new financial and monetary means made new scale(s) of trade possible?
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The stock companies allowed people to invest in colonization easier
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What previously established scale(s) of trade continued?
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Indian Ocean trade
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Describe European merchants overall trade role c. 1450-1750.
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They attempted to get a foothold in the Indian Ocean trade, but it was inefficient so the European countries attempted to colonize the Americas to get the raw materials needed to make luxury goods, which could be sold to foreign markets by the merchants
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Describe European merchants overall trade role c. 1450-1750.
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very important Dutch and English merchants were given power to conquer and rule Christians stopped criticizing merchants for greed gained political and economic power
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What role did silver play in facilitating a truly global scale of trade?
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● China created a tax system where everyone had to pay in silver ● price and demand of silver skyrocketed ● meant foreigners now had something to trade that the Chinese wanted ● Europeans using America silver began extensive trade in China ● this created the first global market
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What new mercantilist financial means developed to facilitate global trade?
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● private trade companies which were given the right to monopolize by the government ● had stocks and many backers so it was little risk for everyone ● had the power to conquer and rule ● VOC Dutch East India Company ● BEIC British East India Company
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a) What were the economic and social effects of the Atlantic trading system?
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Mexico and Peru -Economic: regulated international commerce with European bureaucratic administrative system, economy based on farming and mining (esp. silver), native forced labor ,centers of trade between Asia and Europe -Social: many mixed race people ,Christianity spread but mixed with their traditional religions ,abuse native people ,there was limited social mobility Sugar Colonies -Economic :sugar cash crop ,produced almost only for export and imported necessities ,modern industry for mass market ,huge African slave population -Social: horrible living and work conditions for slaves ,somewhat possible to become free ,when you changed class you changed race Europe: -Economic: $$$$$$ -Social: spread religion, colonized,
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What were the unintentional biological effects of the Columbian Exchange?
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The Great Dying- Afro Eurasian diseases that the immune systems of the Americans had never been exposed to killed as much as 90-95% of the native population This made European colonization much easier and led to a need of workers that lead to the slave trade
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What foods were transferred to new geographic regions as part of the Columbian Exchange, and what were labor systems made this transfer possible?
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From Americas: potatoes, maize, sweet potatoes, chili,tomatoes, chocolate To Americas: oranges, bananas, sugar coffee Sugar's mass production was achieved through slavery
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What plants/animals were deliberately transferred across the Atlantic as part of the Columbian Exchange?
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From Europe to Americas (Americas only had llama): ● Horses ● donkeys ● mules ● pigs ● cattle ● sheep ● goats ● chickens ● large dogs ● cats ● bees
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What effects did American food crops have on the diet of Afro-Eurasians?
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-In Africa maize and manioc have become its most important crops -Ireland's economy and agriculture became dependent on the potato -Italy's cuisine uses a lot of tomatoes -India's cuisine uses chili -new crops= more diverse food sources= can grow food more places= more food -also more varied and healthy diets
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How did settlers' action affect the Americas environmentally?
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● created mines for silver ● killed off a huge part of human population with diseases ● more land used for agriculture
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How did the Columbian Exchange affect the spread of religions?
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spread Catholicism to the Americas many churches built people converted because it made their lives a lot easier under European control they were supposed to treat christians better and give them more rights native traditions were incorporated into Christianity
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Where did the "universal" religions of Buddhism, Christianity & Islam spread?
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Christianity spread throughout the americas latin america became more catholic north america at first was more protestant Christianity also spread on a smaller scale in Asia Islam- Africa and middle east Buddhism- spread throughout asia
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How did the arts fare during this period?
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The arts improved greatly arts became influenced by other cultures European Renaissance- artists were painting more realistically than ever before, painting the human body accurately China- kept traditional arts Americas- became influenced by Christians themes and Asian techniques and materials
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How did public literacy as well as literary and artistic forms of expression develop during this period?
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● increased literacy ● Europeans modified the printing press to make it more effective ● protestants believed each person should read the bible= more literacy ● Knowledge was exchanged through Europe and Asia through books ● Europeans spread writing to parts of Americas for first time
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How did agriculture's role change between 1450-1750?
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- Before 1492, there was very little contact between the new world and Eurasia and Africa. - Once Columbus made contact with North and South America the exchange of crops, slaves, and diseases began, known as the Columbian exchange. - Because of this new exchange, many of the lives and practices were changed throughout the world. - One example of an impact is the Irish reliance on potatoes, which came in from the Americas.
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What pre-requisite conditions made these changes possible?
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- New-world discovery. - New drive for exploration. - New technology (especially maritime tech). - Looking for new routes of trade and exchange.
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How did labor systems develop between 1450-1750?
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- As a result of this new expansion, Europe had a greater demand for labor, such as the mining of silver. (e.g. Potosi) - The use of Natives and Africans for labor was widely practiced, as they were seen as the "inferior" races.
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How was peasant labor affected between 1450-1750?
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- The use of forced slaves over indentured servants became more prevalent (In Americas). Moreover, the control of peasant labor was more tightly controlled (In Europe).
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How did the Atlantic slave trade affect both African societies and the economy of the Americas?
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- The Americas benefitted from the slave trade, because it led to more production and labor. - It also benefitted Europe because of the greater influx of wealth, a result of greater production. - Africa however, was hurt by this slave trade, because of a decrease in the young population, and constant warring between African nations. Europe
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How did slavery within Africa compare to the pre-1450 era?
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- Slavery previously going to Middle East and Asia. - After 1450, slavery going to the Americas. - Great increase in slavery within Africa to meet demands of the Americas.
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How did labor systems develop in the colonial Americas?
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- There was slavery, as for example, slaves were needed to cultivate the sugar plantations in Brazil owned by Portugal. - Also native Americans were forced to work, usually as forced labor.
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How did the post-1450 economic order affect the social, economic, and political elites?
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- Europe became wealthier, the native countries were enslaved and were forced to obey the Europeans. - This also benefited the merchants, as there was increased trade.
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How did pre-existing political and economic elites react to these changes?
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- There was an increased importance of Aristocrats at the top of the social pyramid. - Social status was based more on wealth than before.
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How were gender and family structures affected to these changes?
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- Increased importance of a growing aristocracy - Wealthy families had more power.
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How did societies in the Americas reflect the post-1450 economic order?
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- There was a social stratification based on wealth, and also based on race. For example, native americans were inferior and their societies deteriorated. - people of Spanish blood who were born in the Americas(creoles) considered to be inferior to rulers who arrived to the Americas from Spain. These rulers stayed in the Americas 5-10 years, acquiring riches and keeping order in the Americas. - race determined how much money one could acquire, and consequently, money determined social status in this time period. - Portuguese and Spanish control of Americas determined by the Treaty of Tordesillas determined that these two countries of the Iberian Peninsula had the political power to exploit the Americas economically.
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a) How did empires attempt to administer the new widespread nature of their territories?
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Europe usually attempted to administer the new widespread nature of their territories by putting European descendants in rule inside their territories The Spanish empire for example used viceroys regional rulers to focus on certain parts of their territory for a more effective overall control of the Americas.
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b) How did the role of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe develop in this new worldwide political order?
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Africa supplied slaves for harsh labor and the work force for various civilizations worldwide. The Americas provided various precious metals such as silver to the Spanish and British empires which colonized them, greatly boosting their economies through large trade and demand from China. Asia served as the trading site for many European empires, trading various China unique goods for metals and goods like silver. Europe held various territories including Spanish and British rule in the New World, also took part in extensive trading with Asia in general.
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c) How did the people of various empires react to their government's methods?
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● People of various empires were overall in fear of Europe's governmental methods. ● Various empires were afraid of Europe taking control of them and enforcing harsh rule over their native people. Such as Europe's enslavement of many African people and the dangerous mining conditions the natives were put in while mining all over the Americas ● European enslavement of much of the African population created an image of Europeans being cannibal monsters
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d) How did political rulers legitimize and consolidate their rule?
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Empires put people of their own decent in power over their territories, attempted to assimilate the locals into their culture and religion, and used translators in their territories in order to make negotiations with the locals.
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e) What role did religion play in legitimizing political rule?
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Religion provided justification for their actions, giving valid reason to assimilate native populations. The natives were deemed as "uncivilized", and civilizing them by converting them to their religion was made a legitimate reason to take political power over the native people. Such as the European effort to convert Native Americans to Christianity
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f) How were ethnic and religious minorities treated in various empires?
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● Ethnic and religious minorities in various empires were seen as lesser to the majority and were pressed to convert their religion to the majority in many instances. ● Native Americans were seen as savages to Europe, causing conflict between them and a European effort to "civilize" them and therefore convert them to Christianity. ● African Americans were seen as an inferior race to Europeans and were enslaved by them.
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How did rulers make sure that their governments were well run?
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● Empires appointed rulers of their homeland to run the conquered land. ● Violence was used when the ruler felt threatened, or to bring the people of that land under control, either by fear or by decreasing their numbers. For this, the military was at some points used.
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How did rulers finance their territorial expansion?
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● Tribute ● Taxes
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What was the relationship between imperialism and military technology?
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● Military technology assisted in imperialism because the one with military technology that surpassed the others were the ones that were able to conquer. ● Example: the europeans came with knowledge of military technology, information that was received from many parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. The civilizations of the Americas, who lived pretty much in isolation of each other, were defeated because of their lack in such knowledge. ● Gunpowder, cannons, or any other weaponry
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How did Europeans go about creating new global empires and trade networks?
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● The Europeans were able to take control of the Americas, which helped them greatly in taking a major role in the trade network. ● They also tried to gain control of areas closer to the Indian ocean, especially those involved with the spice trade. (trading posts) ● With the introduction of the Americas and it's goods, not only did the Americas join global trade, but Europe's economics situation took a great change.
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How did pre-existing land-based empires and new empires during this era compare to previous era's empires?
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● The new empires took major roles in trade, such as the Americas with their gold and silver. ● Plants, animals, and people were brought to areas they hadn't been part of before.
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What obstacles to empire-building did empires confront, and how did they respond to these challenges?
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● The natives (suchs as in the Americas). Their response was to kill off the natives, take control over them, or just any way that would demonstrate their power towards them ● The competition for trade routes ( the ones surrounding the areas of the indian ocean, and the Americas with the rest of the world). This was confronted by
