World History Analysis Example Essay Example

upon Enlightenment philosophies and John Locke's theories on government(m). From 1775-1781, a series of events transpired that are collectively known as the American Revolution(5).

Despite the formidable British governmental structures, encompassing its military and navy along with faithful residents within their colonies(n), America steadfastly clung to their revolutionary objective.

The Americans had several advantages including alliances with Europe and the leadership of George Washington. The British submitted in 1781, exhausted from the costly war. Building an independent nation entailed American initiatives such as the Constitutional Convention of 1787. This Constitution safeguarded freedom of expression, press and faith. The foundation of the American republic was laid on ideals like liberty, equality and popular sovereignty. Nevertheless, only property-owning men were bestowed with complete legal and political rights initially. Meanwhile, key developments marked the French Revolution too - convening the Estates General and contending a financial crisis that devoured half of government revenue for national debt.

King Louis XVI found himself obliged to summon the Estates General for the purpose of creating new tax laws. Among these representatives, many were in favor of significant political and social change. The aristocracy and clergy from the First and Second Estates endeavored to restrict the influence of the ordinary people of the Third Estate. Despite this, on June 17, 1789, members from this Third Estate established the National Assembly. They sought a constitution in writing coupled with popular sovereignty. The seizure of Bastille by an outraged crowd on July 14th sparked rebellions across multiple cities. Subsequently, "The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen" was drafted by the National Assembly based upon principles such as liberty, equality, and fraternity. The assembly abolished

feudalism and modified church's role which led France to evolve into a constitutional monarchy by 1791. In response to these changes, foreign forces from Austria and Prussia invaded France seeking to restore old regime practices. As a result, Convention supplanted National Assembly under a fresh constitutional setup in 1791 which led to termination of monarchy making France a republic officially. Eventually King Louis XVI along with Queen Marie Antoinette faced execution in 1793.
The Convention in 1793-94 was dominated by Radical Jacobins, resulting in a "reign of terror". This period of revolutionary changes affected various aspects such as religion, dress, calendar, and women's rights. A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention led to the establishment of the Directory from 1795-1799. Under the Directory, Jacobin leader Robespierre was executed in July 1794, and a new constitution was implemented. The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen was introduced, emphasizing the principles of freedom and equality. Subsequently, the reign of Napoleon from 1799-1815 saw him rise as a brilliant military leader. Despite his initial support for the revolution and defense of the Directory, his invasion of Egypt was defeated by the British army. Eventually, Napoleon overthrew the Directory and declared himself consul for life. During his rule, Napoleonic France brought stability after years of chaos. Key actions included making peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope, extending religious freedoms to Protestants and Jews, and implementing the Civil Code of 1804 which advocated for political and legal equality among all adult men.

Napoleon's reign in 1804 was marked by limited personal freedom, including restrictions on speech and the press when he declared himself as emperor.

His authority extended across different regions of Europe like Iberia, Italy, and the Netherlands. He also achieved victories over Austria and Prussia while battling the British at sea. Nevertheless, his catastrophic incursion into Russia in 1812 resulted in the collapse of his Grand Army. A combination of adversaries eventually led to Napoleon's forced abdication in 1814 and exile to Elba. Despite this drawback, he escaped and returned to France with intentions to build an army but was finally defeated by the British in 1815. The revolution significantly contributed towards shaping Napoleon's power.

The Haitian Revolution stands out in history as the only victorious rebellion by slaves. The revolution occurred in Saint-Domingue, a rich French colony situated on the western part of Hispaniola. The ruling class was a minor faction of white plantation owners while 90% of the populace comprised slaves subjected to brutal labor conditions. Among them were sizeable groups of escaped slaves referred to as maroons. Revolutionary concepts were brought back by free blacks who participated in the American war. There was widespread discontent among various groups; white colonists sought self-rule, gens de couleur claimed political rights, and freedom was the heart's desire for slaves.

The rebellion of the slaves initiated in 1791, where white inhabitants, gens de couleur and enslaved people were at loggerheads. In 1792 French military forces arrived and they were followed by British and Spanish troops in 1793. Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803), a child of slaves who was a proficient strategist, directed an imposing and regimented force. By the year 1797, he held sway over most parts of Saint-Domingue and crafted a constitution in 1801. Nevertheless, he was apprehended

by the French soldiers and met his death while incarcerated in 1803. Following their victory against and expulsion of the disease-ridden French military personnel, The Republic of Haiti surfaced.

The declaration of independence in 1803 led to the establishment of the Republic of Haiti by 1804. This fight for autonomy transpired within a strict societal hierarchy in Latin America, involving peninsulares, creoles, slaves and indigenous populations. The objective of the Creole elite was to supplant the peninsulares while preserving their advantaged status. Napoleon's incursion into Spain in 1807 significantly influenced Mexican independence by destabilizing royal authority over its territories. In Mexico, Hidalgo sparked a peasant uprising in 1810 that was eventually quelled by conservative creoles. Following a brief period as a military dictatorship starting from 1821, Mexico transitioned into a republic by 1822.

During the 1830s, Mexico's southern area was partitioned into multiple autonomous states. Influenced by George Washington, Simon Bolivar (1783-1830), a key figure in South America's fight for liberation, initiated his revolt against Spanish dominance in 1811. By 1824, Creole troops had effectively overthrown Spanish authority throughout South America. Nonetheless, during the 1830s, despite their triumph, Bolivar's efforts to form Gran Colombia were unsuccessful. Regarding Brazil's independence, following the relocation of the Portuguese royal court to Rio de Janeiro in 1807; Pedro - the king's son - consented to give Brazil its independence in 1821.

From 1822 to 1834, Brazil was governed by Emperor Pedro I following its recent attainment of independence. Despite Latin America also gaining independence during this timeframe, there were minimal changes in societal structures. Predominantly, the creole elites benefitted from these alterations. This period marked

the rise of two political philosophies: conservatism and liberalism. Conservatism prioritized steadiness and highlighted the value of tradition and resilience, as Edmund Burke perceived society as an entity that undergoes slow and incremental changes over time. On one hand, the American Revolution was seen as a predictable historical event; on the other hand, the French Revolution was regarded as abrupt and tumultuous.

Liberalism, advocating for freedom, equality, democracy and codified constitutions, recognised change as an essential driver for progress. The promotion of individual liberty and minority rights was significantly influenced by John Stuart Mill. However, the scrutiny of revolutionary principles faced difficulties when dealing with slavery issues. Efforts to terminate slave trade initiated in the 1700s and accelerated during successive revolutions. The prohibition of slave trade by the British Parliament in 1807 inspired other nations to do likewise, despite the continuity of illicit slave trading for a period. Nevertheless, efforts towards abolishing slavery met hindrances due to disagreements over property rights.

Both Haiti and a significant part of South America achieved the abolition of slavery at the same time as they gained independence. This differs from Europe and North America, where initial measures against slave trade gradually evolved into efforts for total elimination of slavery. Consequently, Britain put an end to slavery in 1833, followed by France in 1848, then the United States in 1865, and finally Brazil in 1888. However, legal freedom acquired through abolition did not translate into political equality for former slaves. Moreover, this era also ignited discussions on revolutionary concepts such as women's rights. Despite promoting equality under Enlightenment principles, these were predominantly unextended towards women who demanded equal

treatment.

Using Locke's reasoning, women advanced their rights. Mary Astell contested male supremacy within the familial unit. Mary Wollstonecraft insisted that women held the same inherent rights as men, proclaiming in "The Declaration of Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen 31" that "a woman is born free and is equal to a man in terms of her rights. The only basis for social differences should be shared benefits." Women were pivotal contributors to revolutionary undertakings. Despite obtaining educational and property ownership rights during the French Revolution, women were still not granted suffrage rights. Olympe de Gouges' proclamation endorsing complete citizenship for women was deemed excessively radical.

Throughout many revolutions, significant progress for women's rights was not observed, but the 19th century nonetheless witnessed a rise in movements advocating for women's rights across Europe and America. Concurrently, European countries were strengthening their states, encouraging both cultural and political nationalism. Cultural nationalism emphasized showcasing national identity via shared historical experiences and utilized folk culture and literature to epitomize the nation's spirit (Volkgiest). Meanwhile, political nationalism became more intense during this time period, requiring fidelity and unity from its citizens.

Several ethnic communities sought autonomy as distinct national entities. The rise of the Young Italy movement, initiated by Giuseppe Mazzini, was a reaction to widespread anti-Semitic feelings across Europe. Simultaneously, Theodor Herzl launched Zionism with the goal of forming a Jewish state in Palestine; this aspiration became a reality as Israel in 1948. These formations of national identities occurred during the Congress of Vienna from 1814 to 1815. In this era, traditional leaders aimed to restore pre-Napoleon norms following his defeat and succeeded in

maintaining European power equilibrium for one hundred years.

Throughout the 1800s, ideas of nationalism and revolution were unstoppable forces. This era was a breeding ground for countless nationalist uprisings against existing authorities. In 1827, Greek revolutionaries successfully overthrew Ottoman control. There were also rebellions in countries like France, Spain, Portugal and German regions during 1830 and 1848 respectively. Even though conservative rule often returned after these rebellions, the desire for nationalism and revolution remained strong.

During this same time frame, unification processes were happening in Germany and Italy. By the year 1870, Italy had achieved unity due to the endeavors of Cavour and Garibaldi. Mazzini's Young Italy movement was crucial as it stirred up revolts against foreign dominance within Italian borders. In Northern Italy in 1859, Cavour directed nationalists to expel Austrian leaders.

In 1860, Garibaldi gave southern Italy back to King Vittore Emmanuele. At the same time, a nationalist uprising in Germany was quashed in 1848. This set the stage for the unification of Germany, driven by Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck who initiated three wars that bolstered German nationalism. Consequently, in 1871, the Prussian king announced himself as the emperor of the Second Reich. Furthermore, two momentous global events took place - one in 1776 and another in 1789 - namely, the American Revolution and French Revolution respectively — both had significant impacts far beyond their own borders.

The world underwent a permanent transformation after several uprisings, even though there was resistance from conservative elements in Europe. The revolutionary period introduced new principles such as liberty, equality and popular sovereignty – notions initially proposed by thinkers of the Enlightenment era.

John Locke's idea of governance being an agreement between rulers and ruled inspired the American Revolution, while Jean-Jacques Rousseau's theory of a "social contract" based on the "general will" found expression in France's National Assembly. New forms of government were established in tandem with these fresh ideals.

Different models of governance were formed in areas such as the United States, France, and Latin America. These innovative governments mainly started with formal constitutions, declarations of individual freedoms, and elected administrative entities. Affluent individuals chiefly controlled political power except in Haiti where every man was afforded rights regardless of their race. Fresh ideologies including conservatism, liberalism, and later socialism emerged to tackle notable changes happening during that era - each presenting distinct perspectives on evolution and authority reflecting the socio-economic trends of the 19th century. Social advancement varied greatly; some effects like France's abolition of feudal privileges had a significant and lasting impact while others like the slow eradication of slavery in Americas unfolded gradually. Towards the end of the 1800s women’s fight for equality gathered pace. Nationalism - a conviction deeply ingrained in collective cultural and historical narratives became a dominant force during this time.

During the Ottoman Empire period, ethnic communities such as Greeks pursued national independence, while cultural groups like Italians and Germans established new nations to protect their national identities. The cycle of revolution typically progresses through four stages:
Initial stage: Rising dissatisfaction with the existing regime triggers unplanned protests and violent actions, eventually leading to its downfall.
Second stage: A time of cooperation follows under a moderate new government in what is commonly known as the "honeymoon" phase.
Third stage: Radical elements seize

power resulting in a reduction of individual freedoms and a governance that resorts to violence and drastic measures.
Final stage: Ultimately, balance is restored, often under firm yet authoritative leadership, reinstating rights and societal stability.