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exercise physiology

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study of how the body functions during physical activity and exercise

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anxiety

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state of uneasiness and apprehension

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depression

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act of lowering a muscle or bone or movement in an inferior or downward direction

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sedentary

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doing or requiring much sitting; minimal activity

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physical fitness

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physical components of well-being that enable a person to function at an optimal level

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heart rate

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number of heart beats per minute

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mind/body vitality

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individual's ability to minimize or alleciate unnecessary stress and tension from the body through the integration of physical exercise and mental focus

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muscular strength

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maximal force a muscle or muscle group can exert during contraction

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muscular endurance

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ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force against a resistance over a sustained period of time

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cardiovascular or cardiorespiratory endurance

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capacity of the heart, blood vessels, and lungs to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles and tissues during sustained exercise and to remove metabolic waste products that would result in fatigue; the ability to perform large muscle movements over a sustained period

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aerobic

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in the presence of oxygen

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flexibility

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ability to move joints through their normal range of motion

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body composition

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makeup of the body in terms of the relative percentage of fat-free mass and body fat

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lean body mass

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components of the body (apart from fat), including muscles, bones, nervous tissue, skin, blood, and organs

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adipose tissue

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fatty tissue; connective tissue made up of fat cells

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essential fat

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fatty acids that the body needs but cannot synthesize

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storage fat

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fat contained within adipose tissue that acts as an energy store and thermal insulation, and also cushions the internal organs

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fat

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essential nutrient that provides energy, energy storage, insulation, and contour to the body

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overweight

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term to describe an excessive amount of weight for a given height, using height-to-weight ratios

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obesity

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an excessive accumulation of body fat. Usually defined as more than 20% above ideal weight, or over 25% body fat for men and over 32% body fat for women

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hypertension

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high blood pressure, or the elevation of resting blood pressure above 140/90 mmHg

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type 2 diabetes

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most common form of diabetes; typically develops in adulthood and is characterized by a reduced sensitivity of the insulin target cells to available insulin

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coronary artery disease

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major form of cardiovascular disease; results when the coronary arteries are narrowed or occluded, most commonly by atheroschelotic deposits of fibrous and fatty tissue

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carbohydrates

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body's preferred energy source; dietary sources include sugars (simple) and grains, rice, potatoes, and beans (complex). stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver and is transported in the blood as glucose

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fatty acids

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long hydrocarbon chains with an even number of carbons and varyine degrees of saturation with hydrogen

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lactate

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chemical derivative of lactic acid, which is formed when sugars are broken down for energy without the presence of oxygen

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pulmonary ventilation

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total volume of gas inspired or expired per minute

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cardiac output

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amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute; usually expressed in liters of blood per minute

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hemoglobin

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protein molecule in red blood cells specifically adapted to carry oxygen molecules (by bonding with them)

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tidal volume

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volume of air inspired per breath

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respiration

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exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells and the atmosphere

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emphysema

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obstructive pulmonary disease characterized by the gradual destruction of lung alveoli and the surrounding connective tissue, in addition to airway inflammation, leading to reduced ability to effectively inhale and exhale

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asthma

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chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways that affects genetically susceptible individuals in response to various environmental triggers such as allergens, viral infection, exercise, cold, and stress

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protein

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compound composed of a combination of 20 amino acids that is the major structural component of all body tissue

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anemia

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reduction in the number of red blood cells and/or quantity of hemoglobin per volume of blood below normal values

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stroke volume

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amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle of the heart with each beat

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ejection fraction

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percentage of the total volume of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during the systolic contraction of the heart

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cardiovascular disease

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general term for any disease of the heart, blood vessels, or circulation

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myocardial infaction

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episode in which some of the heart's blood supply is severely cut off or restricted, causing the heart muscle to suffer and die from lack of oxygen

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ischemia

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decrease in the blood supply to a bodily organ, tissue, or part caused by constriction or obstruction of the blood vessels

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oxygen extraction

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amount of oxygen taken from the hemoglobin molecule and used in exercising muscle cells

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mitochondria

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the "power plant" of cells where aerobic metabolism occurs

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viscera

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collective internal organs of the abdominal cavity

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vasoconstriction

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narrowing of the opening of blood vessels (notably the smaller arterioles) caused by the contraction of the smooth muscle lining the vessels

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vasodilation

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increase in diameter of the blood vessels, especially dilation of arterioles leading to increased blood flow to a part of the body

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amino acids

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nitrogen-containing compounds that are building blocks of protein

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gluconeogensis

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production of glucose from non-sugar substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids

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anaerobic

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without the presence of oxygen

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creatine phosphate (CP)

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storage form of high-energy phosphate in muscle cells that can be used to immediately resynthesize adenosine triphosphate

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phosphagens

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high energy phosphate compounds found in muscle tissue, including ATP and CP, that can be broken down for immediate use by the cells

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adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

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one of the chemical by-products of the breakdown of adenosine triphosphate during muscle contraction

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adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

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substance found in muscle cells that participates in energy released by working muscle

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anaerobic glycolysis

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metabolic pathway that uses glucose for energy production without requiring oxygen; produces lactic aced as a by-product

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glycolysis

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breakdown of glucose or of its storage form, glycogen

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pyruvate

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biochemical involved in the Kreb's cycle that facilitates adenosine triphosphate production

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aerobic glycolysis

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metabolic pathway that requires oxygen to facilitate the use of glycogen for energy (ATP); same as oxidative glycolysis

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oxidative glycolysis

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metabolic pathway that requires oxygen to facilitate the use of glycogen for energy (ATP); same as aerobic glycolysis

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acetyl-CoA

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important molecule in metabolism, used in manu biochemical reactions; main use is to convey the carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production; forms common entry point into the Kreb's cycle for the oxidation of carbohydrate and fat

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Kreb's cycle

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series of chemical reactions that act to break pyruvate down to carbon dioxide water, and many hydrogen-powered molecules known an NADH and FADH2

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beta oxidation

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metabolic pathway involving the breakdown of fatty acids (digested dietary fat) for the production of ATP

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respiratory exchange ratio (RER)

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ratio of the amount of carbon dioxide produced relative to the amount of oxygen consumed

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maximum heart rate (MHR)

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highest heart rate a person can attain

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diabetes

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disease of carbohydrate metabolism in which an absolute or relative deficiency of insulin results in an inability to metabolize carbohydrates normally

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oxygen consumption

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process by which oxygen is used to produce energy for cellular work

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maximal aerobic capacity (VO2 max)

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point at which oxygen consumption plateaus with an additional workload; represents a person's capacity for the aerobic synthesis of ATP

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steady state

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constant submaximal exercise below the lactate threshold where the oxygen consumption is meeting the energy requirements of the activity

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vagal withdrawal

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effect produced on the heart when the parasympathetic nerve fibers (which are carried in the vagus nerve) controlling the heart rate are inhibited by the sympathetic nervous system during exercise thus increasing the heart rate

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catecholamines

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hormone released as part of the sympathetic response to exercise

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excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)

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measurably increased rate of oxygen uptake following strenuous activity; extra oxygen is used in the processes that restore the body to a resting state and adapt it to the exercise just performed

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Q10 effect

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physiological phenomenon wherein chemical reactions occur twice as fast when the temperature is increased by 10 degrees C

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anaerobic threshold (AT)

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point during high-intensity activity when the body can no longer meet its demand for oxygen and anaerobic metabolism predominates

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hyperventilation

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greater-than-normal rate of breathing that results in an abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the blood; dizziness may occur

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ventilatory threshold (VT)

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point of transition between predominantly aerobic energy production to anaerobic energy production; involved the recruitment of fast-twitch muscle fivers and identified via gas exchange during exercise testing

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first ventilatory threshold (VT1)

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intensity of aerobic exercise at which ventilation starts to increase in a non-linear fashion in response to an accumulation of metabolic by-products in the blood

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second ventilatory threshold (VT2)

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metabolic marker which represents the point at which high-intensity exercise can no longer be sustained due to an accumulation of lactate

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respiratory compensation threshold (RCT)

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metabolic marker which represents the point at which high-intensity exercise can no longer be sustained due to an accumulation of lactate; also called second ventilatory threshold

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lactate threshold (LT)

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point during exercise of increasing intensity at which blood lactate begins to accumulate above resting levels, where lactate clearance is no longer able to keep up with lactate production

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talk test

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method for measuring exercise intensity using observation of respiration effort and the ability to talk while exercising

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glycogenolysis

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breakdown of liver and muscle glycogen to yield blood glucose

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SAID principle

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training principle that states that the body will adapt to the specific challenges imposed upon it, as long as the program progressively overloads the system begin trained; specific adaptation to imposed demands

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maximal oxygen consumption

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point at which oxygen consumption plateaus with an additional workload; represents a person's capacity for the aerobic synthesis of ATP

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cholesterol

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fat-like substance found in the blood and body tissues and in certain foods; can accumulate in the arteries and lead to a narrowing of the vessels

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triclycderides

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three fatty acids joined to a glycerol (carbon and hydrogen structure) backbone; how fat is stored in the body

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neuron

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basic anatomical unit of the nervous system; the nerve cell

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sensory neurons

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nerve cells that convey electrical impulses from sensory organs in the periphery (such as the skin) to the spinal cord and brain

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motor neurons

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nerve cells that conduct impulses from the central nervous system to the periphery signaling muscles to contract or relax, regulating muscular movement

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synapse

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region of communication between neurons

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motor end plate

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location of the synapse of a motor neuron and muscle cell

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motor unit

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motor nerve and all of the muscle fibers it stimulates

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hypertrophy

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increase in the cross-sectional size of a muscle in response to progressive resistance training

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actin

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thin contractile protein in a myofibril

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myosin

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thick contractile protein in a myofibril

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myofibrils

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portion of the muscle containing the thick (myosin) and thin (actin) contractile filaments; series of sarcomeres where the repeating pattern of the contractile proteins gives the striated appearance to skeletal muscle

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vascularity

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increase in the number and size of blood vessels enhancing blood supply and oxygen delivery to muscle cells

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adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH)

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hormone released by the pituitary glad that affects various important bodily functions; controls the secretion in the adrenal gland of hormones that influence the metabolism of carbohydrates, sodium, and potassium; also controls the rate at which substances are exchanged between the blood and tissues

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cortisol

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hormone that is often referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in the response to stress; it increases blood pressure and blood glucose levels and has an immunosuppressive action

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growth hormone (GH)

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hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that facilitates protein synthesis in the body

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insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1 and IGF-2)

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polypeptide structurally similar to insulin as secreted either during fetal development or during childhood; mediates growth hormone activitiy

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antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland during exercise; reduces urinary excretion of water and prevents dehydration

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vasopressin

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hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland during exercise; reduces urinary excretions of water and prevents dehydration

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osmolality

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measure of the concentration of ionic substances in the blood such as sodium, potassium, and glucose

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aldosterone

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one of two main hormones released by the adrenal cortex; plays a role in limited sodium excretion in the urine

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glucocorticoid

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an adrenocortical steroid hormone that increases gluconeogenesis, exerts an anti-inflammatory effect and influences many bodily functions

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islets of Langerhans

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irregular clusters of endocrine cells scattered throughout the tissue of the pancreas that secretes insulin (beta cell) and glucagon (alpha cells)

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beta cells

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endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas responsible for synthesizing and secreting the hormone insulin, which lowers the glucose levels in the blood

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alpha cells

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endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas responsible for synthesizing and secreting the hormone glucagon, which elevates the glucose levels in the blood

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androgenic

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effects related to developing masculine characteristics associated with manhood

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amenorrhea

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absence of menstruation

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female athlete triad

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condition consisting of a combination of disordered eating, menstrual irregularities and decreased bone mass in athletic women

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peripheral vasodilation

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widening of the blood vessels of peripheral vasculature in the systemic circulation

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dehydration

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process of losing body water; when severe, can cause life threatening consequences

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heat index

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guidelines regarding when exercise can be safely undertaken or when it should be avoided based on measures of heat and humidity

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hyperthermia

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abnormally high body temperature

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vasoconstriction

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narrowing of the opening of blood vessels (notably the smaller arterioles) caused by the contraction of the smooth muscle lining the vessels

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windchill

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chill factor created by the increase in the rate of heat loss via convection and conduction caused by wind

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evaporation

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process by which molecules in a liquid state spontaneously become gaseous

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partial pressure

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pressure of each gas in a multiple gas system

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angina

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common symptom of coronary artery disease characterized by chest pain, tightness, or radiating pain resulting from a lack of blood flow to the heart muscle

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anemic

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reduction in the number of red blood cells and/or quantity of hemoglobin per volume of blood below normal values

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principle of specificity

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exercise training principle explaining that specific exercise demands made on the body produce specific responses by the body

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depression

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condition of general emotional dejection and withdrawal; sadness greater and more prolonged than that warraned by any objective reason

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