question

Grounded theory method

answer

developing theories

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atypical of qualitative research

answer

standardized quality of life questionnare

question

purpose of phenomenological research

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describe experiences as they are lived

question

Data collection in many types of qualitative studies is considered complete when

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a point of theoretical saturation is reached

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Qualitative research is based on which of the following?

answer

The belief that multiple "truths" and "realities" exist

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here are many different approaches to qualitative research. What is one common thread that is evident in all types?

answer

The process in each kind is a little like working a puzzle and putting pieces together to make it whole.

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type of research involve at least a minor degree of control by the researcher to implement the study treatment?

answer

quasi-experimental

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type of research has a major focus on examining the long-term, short-term, negative, and positive results of care across a variety of settings

answer

Outcomes research

question

Based on the Medical Outcomes Study Theoretical Framework, which of the following are examples of processes of care that should be considered when designing the study

answer

nurse counseling regarding how to use ibuprofen for arthritis pain

question

dissemination of findings of outcomes research

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A series of presentation and publications in many venues

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clinical guideline panels contribute to outcomes research

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They incorporate evidence on health outcomes into recommendations concerning management strategies

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A financial incentive is a of care that can negatively influence cost outcomes for third-party payers.

answer

sturcture

question

A researcher is looking particularly at the organizational hierarchy of a health care system. What specific aspect of quality health care would this address

answer

Structure of care

question

Outcomes researchers study ways in which healthcare structure and process influence clinical end points, patient well-being, patient satisfaction, and

answer

functional status

question

Why is it important to widely disseminate the findings of outcomes research

answer

By disseminating the findings of outcomes research, myths can be dispelled or supported

question

A group of experts from around the world have been gathered together. They come from a variety of disciplines and represent many years of experience in the field. Each has read extensively on the topic of interest and shares what they have read. The goal of this meeting is to identify research priorities. What strategy is being employed in this situation

answer

consensus knowledge building

question

A researcher conducting outcomes research is focusing on what component of patient care

answer

end results

question

Which statement best reflects why nurse-sensitive quality indicators are extremely important to the profession

answer

Nurse-sensitive quality indicators are directly related to what nurses do for the patient

question

A researcher designs a study that uses a random sampling method to decrease the likelihood of bias in the study sample. This strategy was used to implement

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control

question

The primary purpose of nursing research is to

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generate scientific knowledge to guide nursing practice

question

Quantitative and qualitative research approaches are particularly useful in nursing because they

answer

balance each other

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A nurse who reads research articles and incorporates research findings into nursing practice would demonstrate which of the following research roles

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consumer

question

Ethnographic research focuses on

answer

trying to understand cultures from an emic perspective

question

The components of rigor in qualitative research are

answer

openness and adherence to the philosophical orientation.

question

Which of the following is a characteristic of phenomenological research methodology

answer

bracketing

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A research problem is defined as a(n):

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general area of concern requiring study

question

The main reason for not including qualitative studies in reviews for evidence-based practice is

answer

it is difficult to evaluate qualitative studies

question

Perhaps the biggest obstacle to outcomes research

answer

it is extremely complex and difficult to plan and control

question

According to Donabedian's Health Care Quality Theory, what three factors must be considered when designing research focused on assessing healthcare quality

answer

Structure, Process, and Outcomes

question

Cochrane Data Base

answer

systematic review

question

Which of the following indexes would provide the largest number of relevant nursing sources

answer

Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature

question

Which of the following research approaches would be most reasonable to use if a researcher is interested in finding out what it is like to live with a person who has a terminal illness

answer

phenomological approach

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The approach involves studying behaviors from within a culture

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emic

question

Population-based studies offer which additional focus to research questions

answer

Conditions are studied in the context of a community

question

Within CINAHL, what search field would you use to limit/revise your search by study type

answer

publication type

question

The statement, "This study explores the experience of caregiving by adult daughters of parents with Alzheimer's disease," is an example of which of the following

answer

research objective

question

Low-fat diet is related to lower total cholesterol and higher HDL (high-density lipoprotein)."

answer

Complex, directional, associative

question

Cancer patients who receive music therapy complain less frequently of pain and require less pain medication than cancer patients not receiving music therapy

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complex, directional

question

Normal saline flush with heparin is more effective than normal saline flush alone in maintaining patency of an intermittent intravenous si

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simple, directional

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In which situation would a null hypothesis be appropriate

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The researcher predicts that there will be no difference among the groups

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response, behavior, or outcomes that the researcher wants to predict or explain.

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dependent variable

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The purpose statement should identify the study variable(s) and what other key aspect of the study

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population to be studied

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Ethical research follows .

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three principles set forth by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.

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In experimental research, the researcher's control of the "treatment" is referred to as

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manipulation

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A research design is best described as a:

answer

blueprint for conducting the study.

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Which of the following must be present in experimental research

answer

Random assignment of subjects to groups

question

Control of threats to internal validity are most stringently considered in which type of study?

answer

Quasiexperimental

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Which of the following are important aspect to consider when critiquing a literature review?

answer

Primary sources cited, references current (no more than 10 years old except for landmark studies,gaps in knowledge identified in a way that provides a basis for the study

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The main goal of the Public Health Service (PHS) policy

answer

is to ensure humane treatment of animals

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Another name for probability sampling

answer

random sampling

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The population from which the researcher selects the actual study sample is referred to as

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accessibe population

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A researcher who does not disclose that a portion of the data from the original study sample was not used in the final data analysis could be accused of:

answer

scientific misconduct

question

The population is the entire set of individuals who meet the sampling criteria.

answer

target

question

A researcher looking over a patient's record for purposes of obtaining research data would be exposing that subject to what degree of harm

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No anticipated effects

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Which of the following will increase the external validity of a study

answer

randomly selected sample

question

a psychological response of subjects who change their behavior simply because they are in a study.

answer

hawethorne effect

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The provision that research be differentiated to potential subjects as therapeutic or nontherapeutic is a part of the:

answer

Declaration of Helsinki

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A researcher wanting to explore the lives of women newly diagnosed with breast cancer obtains a random sample of the population. What part of the study will be strengthened because of the random sample?

answer

external validity

question

A problem for nurses conducting quasi-experimental or experimental research is that many times a patient can not ethically be left without a treatment (i.e., put into a control group that receives nothing). What is the best solution for this problem?

answer

Ensuring all patients receive the standard of care.

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The concept of causality would be important in

answer

experimental

question

threat to internal A validity of a study using a two-group pretest/-posttest design is that:

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The pretest may sensitize subjects so they change their behavior or responses on the posttest

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The term "internal validity" refers to the degree to which

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the independent variable can be interpreted as being responsible for the effects on the dependent variable

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At what point in the research process is the literature review conducted in a qualitative investigation

answer

depends on the type of study

question

Subjects who participate in a study of patients with inflammatory bowel disease are described as the

answer

sample

question

What international document was developed in 1949 to direct investigators in conducting ethical research?

answer

nuremburg code

question

Sample size is deemed to be adequate when the researcher is detecting no new knowledge from additional subjects

answer

qualitative sample size

question

Caucasian , african american, asian amaerican

answer

nominal

question

In the research process, a critical factor in data collection is

answer

consistency

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Characteristics of the sample may affect the validity of a tool for use in a particular study

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validity of a measure

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The difference between the observed score and what exists in reality (true score) is called:

answer

measurement error

question

The lowest level of measurement is

answer

nominal

question

Is not useful in situations where the variable is dynamic and changing

answer

reset retest reliablility

question

Data characteristics that can be ranked are measured on which scale

answer

ordinal

question

Type I errors

answer

Occurs when the researcher states that there is a statistically significant difference between groups (the null is rejected) when actually, there is NO difference between the groups (the null hypothesis should be accepted)

question

Descriptive statistics should be reported in every study for which of the following reasons

answer

to show the sample characteristics

question

What statistical test would you use to test the difference in heart rate response to exercise between a group of cardiac patients involved in a formal cardiac rehabilitation program and another group exercising at home?

answer

t-test

question

The mean scores of two groups participating in a study are exactly the same for a particular variable. This suggests that:

answer

The average score is the same for each group

question

The median of the following set of numbers (12, 4, 13, 20, 4, 10, 14) is

answer

12

question

Which of the following measures would be helpful in interpreting the relationship of a particular score to the distribution?

answer

standard deviation

question

E. M. Rogers developed a theory concerned with:

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research utilization

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Utilization of research findings in clinical areas is slow because:

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Nurses are not usually rewarded for using research findings in practice

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A model of research utilization such as the Rogers model has been designed to

answer

facilitate critical thinking and assist in decision making for research utilization

question

The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) is noted for development of which of the following

answer

Clinical practice guidelines to direct health care practices

question

Which of the following is one of the characteristics of an innovation that determines the probability and speed at which an idea will be adopted?

answer

compatability

question

What is a metasummary?

answer

a synthesis of multiple primary qualitative studies to produce a narrative about a selected phenomenon

question

Which of the following is true about the relationship between reliability and validity

answer

Unless it is reliable, it cannot be valid

question

Which of the following is true about Likert scales?

answer

Scores from individual items can be summed for a total score.

question

Cronbach's alpha is used in tool development to determine:

answer

internal consistency

question

The semantic differential scale consists of:

answer

sets of bipolar adjectives measuring degree of feeling about a concept.

question

A major advantage of using a questionnaire for data collection is that a questionnaire

answer

can be distributed to large groups of people

question

Which of the following can be measured using direct measures?

answer

Concrete factors, such as age, gender, height, and weight

question

Which level of measurement is indicated when referring to a temperature of 70°

answer

interval

question

Subjects respond to a visual analogue scale by:

answer

drawing a mark across a 100-mm line that has bipolar anchors.

question

Under what condition would the mean, median, and mode be equal?

answer

when scores are normally distributed

question

Which of the following will be most affected by scores that are extremely high or extremely low?

answer

mean

question

A researcher notes that although no mathematical significance was found, some premature infants who were exposed to soothing music for 6 hours daily exhibited lower heart rates and less crying. This finding would have which type of significance?

answer

clinical

question

The mean scores of two groups participating in a study are exactly the same for a particular variable. This suggests that:

answer

the average score is the same for each group

question

Rogers indicates that the process by which adopters of research modify innovations to best meet their own needs is:

answer

reinvention

question

Which of the following strategies for utilization is most amenable to adoption by baccalaureate nursing students and new graduates?

answer

Reading professional journals critically and reporting the findings at staff meetings

question

During which stage of Rogers' Theory of Diffusion of Innovations is the use of mass media most effective?

answer

knowledge

question

During which stage of Rogers' Theory of Diffusion of Innovations is the use of mass media most effective?

answer

Confirmation

question

To detect a significant difference between two groups when the effect size is small, what should the researcher do

answer

increase the sample size

question

Which of the following types of sampling is considered to be the weakest?

answer

convineince

question

Which uses the higher level of measurement, temperature in Fahrenheit degrees or weight in kilograms?

answer

weight

question

The aspect of reliability for which interrater reliability is appropriate is:

answer

equivalence

question

The items in nominal-level instruments should be

answer

mutually exclusive and exhuastive

question

One significant criterion to use when critiquing a literature review is to

answer

make note of the source of the articles cited.

question

A researcher wants to obtain a sample of individuals who are HIV positive. Which of the following sampling methods would be the most effective way to obtain a sample?

answer

Network Sampling

question

The first internationally recognized effort to establish ethical standards was the:

answer

Neuremburg Code

question

Which of the following definitions best describes rigor in quantitative research?

answer

Amount of control and percision exerted by the methodology

question

Data Quality

answer

How do you know if the data you have collected are "good"? An ideal data collection procedure measures or captures the constructs in a way that is: relevant credible accurate unbiased sensitive Few data collections match this ideal!

question

Measurement

answer

Quantitative studies derive data through measurement of research variable Measurement - consists of rules for assigning numbers to objects to represent quantities of attributes "Whatever exists, exists in some amount and can be measured." L.L. Thurstone (American psychologist)

question

Rules for Measurement

answer

Some rules to measure some variables are known to us (temperature, weight) Rules to measure other variables have to be invented Goal of the rules is to link numeric values to reality as close as possible - known as "isomorphism" (from Greek - meaning "equal shape")

question

Advantages for Measurement

answer

Removes guesswork - it is objective Makes it possible to obtain reasonably precise information Enables us to communicate information without ambiguity

question

Errors of Measurement

answer

Both the objects that are being measured and the measurement procedures are subject to influences that render it less than accurate Therefore, conceptually, an observed or obtained score can be represented as having two parts: a true component an error component Obtained score = True score +/- Error Score XO = XT +/- XE

question

Components of a Score

answer

True score- hypothetical; never known by us What one hopes to measure Error score - Problematic because it represents an unknown quantity Unknown Variable Random

question

Factors Contributing to Measurement Error

answer

Situational components - being watched Transitory personal factors - hunger Response-set bias - social desirability, extreme responses, etc Administration variations Instrument clarity Item sampling Instrument format

question

Types of Error

answer

Error can be divided into two components: Random error - any factors that randomly affect measurement of the variable across the sample; example - person taking a test - may be in a good mood or bad mood Systematic error - any factors that systematically affect measurement of the variable across the sample; persons taking a test-there may be a loud noise in the hall affecting all the students scores Example - weigh subjects with varying pressure by hand on shoulder

question

Instruments: Criteria to Assess Adequacy

answer

Assessment of the quality and adequacy of an instrument is necessary Assessment includes Reliability Validity

question

Approaches to Reliability

answer

There are two ways of approaching the concept of reliability Consistency Accuracy Errors that affect one of these aspects usually affect the other also

question

Reliability of Instruments

answer

Reliability refers to the degree of consistency with which the instrument measures the attribute it is supposed to be measuring (the target attribute) In practical terms - if a measure is reliable, it means that you would get the same result over and over again Reliability is a characteristic of a measure that is taken across individuals (not a single individual)

question

isomorphism

answer

Goal of the rules is to link numeric values to reality as close as possible

question

Determination of Reliability

answer

Reliability is related to the variation of an instrument in repeated measurements of the attribute It can't be calculated exactly but can only be estimated A reliable measure is one that maximizes the true score component and minimizes the error component Reliability may be thought of as a fraction or a proportion

question

Key Aspects of Reliability

answer

Stability, Internal consistency reliability, Equivalence

question

Equivalence

answer

the degree of similarity between alternate forms of the same instruments or findings of two researchers. Procedures include parallel-forms reliability and inter-rater reliability (the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same phenomena)

question

Internal consistency reliability

answer

the homogeneity of an instrument; the extent to which all of its subparts are measuring the same characteristic. Procedure to assess this include split-half techniques and Cronbach alpha or coefficient alpha

question

Stability

answer

the extent to which the same results are obtained on repeated administrations of the instrument. Procedure to assess this aspect is test-retest reliability

question

Test-Retest Reliability

answer

Procedure to assess the stability of an instrument Administration of same test to same Ss & compares the scores The objective comparison procedure is to compute a reliability coefficient - which is a numeric index of the magnitude of the test's reliability (need to understand a correlation coefficient)

question

The Reliability Coefficient

answer

For test-retest- is the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores (example - p.454) Reliability coefficients normally range between 0.00 and +1.00 Higher RCs indicate more stable measures Coefficients > .70 are satisfactory As a stability index, the RC is most appropriate for relatively enduring attributes such as personality, abilities, or physical characteristics. RCs usually higher for short-term retests than for long-term retests (1-2 months)

question

Correction for Attenuation

answer

An estimation of what the correlation between two variables would be, if both instruments were perfectly reliable ("the fiction of perfect reliabilities" - Nunnally, 1978) A method used to adjust correlation coefficients upward because of errors of measurement when two measured variables are correlated; the errors always serve to lower the correlation coefficient as compared with what it would have been if the measurement of the two variables had been perfectly reliable.

question

Disadvantages of the Test-Retest Method

answer

Some traits DO change over time, independent of the stability of the measure Test-retest effect - influenced by memory; results in a spuriously high reliability coefficient Ss may actually change as a result of the first administration Requires two test administrations Second test may be done carelessly

question

Internal Consistency

answer

The aspect of reliability that indicates the homogeneity of the instrument Judge the reliability of the instrument by estimating how well the items that reflect the same construct yield similar results Most widely used approach to estimating an instrument's reliability Requires only one test administration Best means to assess one of the most important sources of measurement error in psychosocial instruments --- sampling of items

question

Methods for Assessing Internal Consistency

answer

There are a number of internal consistency measures that can be used Two techniques commonly used are: Split-half Cronbach alpha SPSS Procedure - Analyze/Scale/Reliability Model - alpha Click on ALL individual items

question

Split-Half Technique

answer

Procedure splits test into two halves (odd-even) and computes a correlation coefficient between the two half tests This procedure tends to underestimate the reliability if the test were longer

question

Cronbach Alpha

answer

Most widely used internal consistency reliability estimate; most conservative (p. 455) Also known as coefficient alpha Preferable over the split-half Gives an estimate of the split-half correlation for all possible ways of dividing the measure into two halves Equivalent to the average of all possible split-half correlations Ranges between .00 and +1.00 Higher values reflect a higher degree of internal consistency KR-20 - a specialized version of the alpha for dichotomous data

question

Parallel-Forms Reliability (Equivalence)

answer

This approach is used under one of two circumstances: When different observers or researchers are using the same instrument to measure the same phenomena at the same time When two parallel instruments are administered to individuals at about the same time Purpose is to determine the equivalence of the instruments Compute a correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores as an index of reliability of equivalence

question

Inter-Rater Reliability

answer

A reliability of equivalence Procedure Two or more trained observers watching an event simultaneously and independently recording the data A index of equivalence can be computed This may be a correlation coefficient Others - Cohen's kappa, etc

question

Interpretation of Reliability Coefficients

answer

Instrument that is unreliable interferes with the adequate testing of a researcher's hypothesis Reliability affects statistical power There is no absolute standard of what an acceptable reliability coefficient should be For group-level comparisons a .70 may be adequate; coefficients of .80 or greater are highly desirable For making decisions about individuals a .90 is desirable

question

Reliability Coefficient as Variability in Scores

answer

The RC has special interpretation What was true about decomposing a single observed score is true about decomposing the variability of all the scores V0 = VT + VE Reliability is the proportion of VT to the V0 RC = VT/VO If we have an instrument with a coefficient of reliability of .85 - 85% of the variability in obtained scores could be said to represent true differences and 15% of the variability would reflect random fluctuations

question

Factors Affecting Reliability

answer

Reliability is partly a function of length of survey, to improve reliability more items tapping the concept should be added After doing an item analysis, items that do not discriminate should be replaced Greater reliability occurs with a more heterogeneous sample b/c the instrument is designed to measure differences

question

Using Instruments Previously Developed

answer

Using a previously reliable instrument is no guarantee that it will be reliable in the new study An instrument's reliability is not a fixed entity Reliability is not a property of the instrument but rather of the instrument when administered to a certain sample under certain conditions If the second group is similar - then probably the reliability would be pretty accurate

question

Validity of Instruments

answer

The second most important criterion for evaluating an instrument The degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to be measuring Validity also has a number of different approaches More difficult to establish than reliability

question

Types of Instrument Validity

answer

Translation validity- is the operationalization a good reflection of the construct? Face validity Content validity Criterion-related validity - does the operationalization behave the way it should given your theory of the construct? Predictive validity Concurrent validity Convergent validity Discriminant validity

question

Face Validity

answer

Look at the operationalization to see if "on its face" it looks as though it is measuring the appropriate construct Uses panel of experts Provides weak evidence b/c it uses subjective judgment call

question

Content Validity

answer

Checks the operationalization against the relevant content domain Assumes that you have a good detailed description of the content domain Instruments - determines the the sampling adequacy of the items for the construct being measured Useful for affective and cognitive instruments For cognitive measures - use a "framework" Example - Seven Danger Signs for Cancer For affective measures - need a thorough conceptualization of the construct of interest

question

Establishing Content Validity

answer

Follows an exhaustive literature review or is derived from a qualitative study No completely objective method of assuring content validity Necessary that All items are relevant All relevant items are included

question

Content Validity Index(CVI)

answer

Method to assess the relevance of the items Uses a panel of experts in the content area to evaluate individual items and the whole instrument Panel - at least three experts Experts rate each item on a 4-point scale - from 1 = not relevant to 4 = very relevant CVI is %age of total items rated as 3 or a 4 CVI of >.80 is considered to have good content validity

question

Criterion-Related Validity

answer

Practical approach to check the performance of the instrument against some criterion Not used to determine whether instrument is measuring a particular trait Used to establish the relationship between the instrument and some other criterion Need an available reasonably reliable and valid criterion to compare Method of comparison - correlate scores Example - measuring self-esteem

question

Types of Criterion-Related Validity

answer

Predictive validity Concurrent validity

question

Predictive Validity

answer

You assess the operationalization's ability to predict something it should theoretically be able to predict

question

Concurrent Validity

answer

You assess the ability of an instrument to distinguish groups that it should theoretically be able to distinguish between

question

Construct Validity"Theory-Based"

answer

The overarching quality with all of the other measurement validity labels falling beneath it Not limited only to measurement Construct validity - the approximate truth of the conclusion that your operationalization accurately reflects its construct Just as much a part of the independent variable as the dependent variable Strong steps to enhance the content validity will also strengthen the construct validity

question

Known Groups Method

answer

Groups known to differ on the attribute being measured are administered the instrument Examples To validate a fear of labor scale - give to both primiparas & multips. Assumes that primips fear labor more! To validate a measure of functional ability - give to emphysema patients and patients with no emphysema

question

Hypothesized Relationships

answer

Variant of the known-groups approach-involves hypothesizes relationships on the basis of theory Example -Text, p. 461 fear of labor instrument; we could contrast scores of primips v. multips; we would expect that primips would be more fearful Logic is fallible but yields important evidence

question

Convergent-Discriminant Validity

answer

Subtypes of construct validity Neither alone is sufficient for establishing validity Use of correlations in construct validity Correlations between theoretically similar measures should be "high" Correlations between theoretically dissimilar measures should be "low"

question

Convergent Validity

answer

Measures of constructs that theoretically should be related to each other are, in fact, observed to be related to each other Able to show a correspondence or convergence between similar constructs

question

Discriminant Validity

answer

Measures of constructs that theoretically should not be related to each other are, in fact, observed not to be related to each other Able to discriminate between dissimilar constructs

question

Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Method (MTMM)

answer

A procedure that uses the concepts of both convergence & discriminability Uses multi-traits & multi-methods

question

Factor Analysis

answer

Another approach to construct validity is FA- a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related variable-that is, dimensions underlying a central construct Dimensions are called factors- each represents a relatively unitary attribute Another means of testing hypotheses about interrelationships and for looking at the convergent and discriminant validity of a large set of items Confirmatory FA sometimes used to analyze MTMM data

question

Interpretation of Validity

answer

Not an all-or-nothing characteristic of an instrument - there are degrees However, one cannot say that the process of testing the validity of an instrument proves the validity but rather that the validity is supported to a greater or lesser degree by the evidence Really - a researcher does not validate the instrument itself but rather the application of the instrument

question

Interdependence - Reliability & Validity

answer

R & V - not totally independent An instrument that is not reliable cannot possibly be valid An instrument that is reliable may not necessarily be valid High reliability provides no evidence of validity for intended purpose Low reliability is evidence of low validity

question

Other Criteria for Instruments

answer

Sensitivity, Specificity, Predictive values, Likelihood ratios

question

Sensitivity

answer

the ability of an instrument to identify a "case" correctly, that is, to screen in or to diagnose a condition correctly the ability to identify a case correctly (true positive)

question

Specificity

answer

an instrument's ability to identify non-cases correctly, that is, to screen out those without the condition correctly the ability to identify a noncase correctly (true negative) It is an instrument's rate of yielding "true negatives"

question

Likelihood Ratio

answer

Addresses the question - How much more likely are we to find that an indicator is positive among those with the outcome of concern compared with those for whom the indicator is negative? summarizes the relationship between specificity and sensitivity in a single number

question

ROC Curves(Receiver Operator Characteristic

answer

A graphical plot of the sensitivity, or true positive rate, vs. false positive rate (1 − specificity or 1 − true negative rate), for a binary classifier system as its discrimination threshold is varied. Determines a cutoff point (the critical value) to discriminate between cases and noncases

question

Efficiency

answer

Efficiency -instruments of comparable R&V may differ in their efficiency In self-reports, closed-ended questions are more efficient than open-ended Spearman-Brown formula may be used to estimate reliability with a reduction in the number of items P & B - footnote on p. 467

question

Spearman-Brown (Prophecy) Formula

answer

Long instruments tend to be more reliable than shorter ones. There is a point of diminishing returns. A formula was developed to adjust the correlation to estimate how reliable the scale would be with fewer items. Known as Spearman-Brown prophecy formula

question

Developing a Data Collection Plan

answer

3 independent decisions 1) design of study (includes sampling) 2) use of existing or new data 3) data collection method

question

Existing Data

answer

Existing records, historical records, secondary analysis, meta-analysis.

question

Meta-analysis

answer

A method that allows researchers to combine the results of several different studies on a similar topic in order to establish the strength of an effect.

question

4 Dimensions of Data Collection Methods

answer

Type of Data Quantifiability Researcher Obtrusiveness Objectivity

question

Structured Data Collection

answer

Format is more rigidly fixed Takes time to develop but less time to analyze Collection instrument or tool is the formal written document

question

Unstructured Data Collection

answer

allows flexibilty to reveal information in a naturalistic manner more appropriate for indepth examination of a phenomenon less up front work, but more time analyzing usually qualitative research usually no formal instrument

question

Major Types Of Data Collection Methods

answer

Self Reports (surveys, questionnaires, interviews) Observation Biophysical measures

question

Self Report

answer

-obtained by asking people directly -direct and versatile -appropriate to know what people think, feel, of believe -yields info difficult to obtain any other way

question

Uses of Self Report

answer

-Obtain behaviors that one could observe but usually doesn't -gather retrospective data or prospective info -gather subjects "state of mind" rather than behaviors

question

Types of Unstructured Self Report

answer

Unstructured Interview Focused interview Focus group interview (need homogenous group to promote comfort) Life Histories Critical Incidents Diaries

question

Gathering Unstructured Data

answer

Researcher needs to overcome communication barriers and to enhance the flow of meaning Need to be a good listener Interview often long Record interview and transcribe

question

Self Report:Structured Interviews

answer

Uses formal, written instrument known as interview schedule Questionnaire (if respondents fill out themselves) Consists of a set questions in which the wording and most alternatives are predetermined Researcher uses a great deal effort into developing structured instruments

question

Advantages of Interviews

answer

High response rates Clarity-protect against ambiguity Depth of questioning Fewer "Idon't knows" Order of questions Sample Control Supplementary Data - reveals other data thru observation

question

Types of Closed Ended Questions

answer

Dichotomous Multiple Choice Cafeteria questions Rank-order Rating (issue of neutral Checklists Visual Analogue Scales (100mm long)

question

Developing Structured Instruments

answer

Requires considerable time Cluster related concepts Decide to use interview or questionairre meaningful sequence of modules and questions within modules General questions before specific Preface with introductory comments about study Have instrument critiqued for content and proofed for technical problems Pretest

question

Advantages of Questionnaires

answer

Cost Anonymity Lacks interviewer bias

question

Observation

answer

Alternative to selfreport Characteristics/conditions of individuals (self grooming, non-verbal communication) Lab or natural setting Directly or with tech (video)

question

Uses of Observational Data

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When people cannot be expected to describe their own behaviors (embarrassment, behaviors are emotion-laden, children or mentally ill)

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Shortcomings of Observational Data Collection

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Ethical issues Distorted Behavior High rate of refusals Observer Bias

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Sources of Observer Bias

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Emotions, prejudices, attitudes and values of observer Personal interest and commitment Anticipation of what is observed Hasty decisions

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Phenomena Amenable to Observation

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Characteristics/conditions of individuals Activities Verbal communication behaviors Nonverbal communication Environmental characteristics

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Units of Observation

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Molar Molecular

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Molar Approach

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Observing large segments of behavior and trreating them as a whole

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Molecular Approach

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Observing small and highly significant behaviors as the unit of observation

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Observer-Observed Relationship with Intervention

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Researcher actually intervenes in the research setting Researcher stages a situation to provoke a behavior

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Observer-Observed Relationship with Concealment

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Varies from partial to total Participants maybe aware of researcher, but unsure of motive

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Structured Observations

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Used when researcher has previous knowledge of phenomena Researcher develops plan ahead of time of categories and checklists Operational definitions are developed

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Observational Sampling

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Used with structured observations Researcher decides on the time-sampling; the timing of observations; the selection of periods during which the observations will occur Researcher can decide on event sampling; a predetermined behavior or event to be observed

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Enhancement of Contrasts

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Distortion by dividing into clearcut entities

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Central Tendency

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Distortion when extreme events are distorted to a middle ground

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Assimilatory

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Distortion in the direction of the identity with previous inputs

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Halo Effect

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Tendency of observer to let one characteristic influence the judgement of unrelated characteristics

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Error of Leniency or Severity

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tendency of the observer to rate everything positively or negatively

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Observer Biases

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Enhancement of contrast Central tendency Assimilatory Halo effect Error of leniency or severity

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Biophysical Measures

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Current trend in nursing research Need specialized training for use and interpretation Equipment is costly but often available

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Advantages od Biophysical Measures

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Objectivity Precision and sensitivity

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Disadvantages of Biophysical Measures

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Failure to understand the limitations of the equipment Interferences in measurements may create artifacts

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Identify Data Needs

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Address all research questions/test the hypotheses Describe the main characteristics of the sample Controlling for important sources of extraneous variables Analyze potential biases Understanding supgroup effects Interpreting results Checking on manipulation Obtaining administrative information

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Selecting and Developing Measures

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Identify potential instruments Primary consideration is whether instrument is conceptually relevant Does the instrument yield data of sufficiently high quality Get permission to use/adapt existing instrument

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Selecting an Existing Instrument

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Resources - direct costs, indirect costs Availability and familiarity Norms and comparibilty Administration issues - timing, privacy issues, copyright Reputation - seek consultation with experts

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Pretest Data Collection

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Determine length of time for administration Identify difficult or confusing parts Identify objectionable or offensive parts Determine sequencing of instruments Determine training needs of staff Determine if measures yield data with sufficient variabilty

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Selecting Research Personnel

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Large Studies Experience Congruity with sample characteristics Unremarkable appearance Availability thru entire study

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Training Data Collectors

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General procedures Specific procedures Protocols Detailed instructions Trial runs of data collection

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Response Biases

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Tendency to distort responses (usually to present a favorable image Social desirability response bias (misrepresent consistently) Acquiescence Response set (all yes or no)

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Tips For Wording Questions

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Wording must be clear Determine if respondents can be expected to understand the question and know the response Wording should minimize risk of response bias Develop questions sensitive to the needs & rights of subjects State in affirmative rather than negative Avoid lengthy sentences/medical terminology Avoid "double-barreled" questions - those containing two ideas Avoid assuming that respondents WILL know the information Avoid leading questions - provide range Use closed-ended for sensitive Use impersonal wording if sensitive Pretest with "cognitive questioning" to assure understanding

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Tips for Closed-Ended Response Alternatives

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Should cover all significant alternatives Be mutually exclusive Some rationale for order of presentation Some reasonable length

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Formatting an Instrument

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Good eye appeal - enough "white space" Set off response options Include directions as to how to respond Format filter questions carefully using appropriate skip patterns Avoid forcing readers to read through inapplicable questions

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Biophysical Data Collection Methods

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May be in vivo - directly within or on the living organism; or in vitro - performed outside the body - blood values Selection - use standard equipment Include information about make/model of the apparatus Include information about the error of measurement

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Use of Records

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Multitude of sources Advantages - readily available and relatively low cost Disadvantage - bias can enter into use - sampling bias; question accuracy, authenticity

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Projective Techniques

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Obtain psychological data with a minimum of cooperation One type - pictorial projective - uses pictures Rorschach ink blot test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - pictures where Ss make up stories Verbal projective techniques -uses word association; Ex - "When I think of a nurse, I feel..." Advantage - supporters say the technique probes the unconscious mind Critics - suggest that the interpretation of the response is almost as projective as the participant's reaction to the original stimulus

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Vignettes

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Self report by participants but involve a stimulus Brief descriptions of events or situations are given to which respondents are asked to react Vignette may be written narratives or videotaped segments Advantage - stimuli can be manipulated; subjects can be randomly assigned Limitation - validity of responses - would Ss react in the same way in an actual situation

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Scaling

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S.S. Stevens - "Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers according to a rule." A branch of measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that associates qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units Unidimensional scaling methods were developed in the first half of the 20th century Generally named after their inventors

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Purposes of Scaling

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To test an hypothesis To explore a topic - to decide on its dimensionality Need to decide on whether the construct is unidimensional (able to be measured with a single number line) or multidimensional (need more than one number line) Example - "intelligence" - more than one number line-verbal or mathematical

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Composite Scaling

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Used for social-psychological measures Provides a numeric score to place respondents on a continuum with respect to an attitude or attribute Early types - historical - see footnote p. 418 Thurstone Guttman Common Likert Semantic Differential

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Likert Scaling (Summated Rating Scale)

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Most widely used unidimensional scaling technique; named after psychologist Rensis Likert (1903-1981) Consists of several declarative items that express a viewpoint on a topic with respondents being asked to the degree they agree or disagree Initially assemble a large pool of items or statements that state the range of positions Aim is to spread out people along a continuum; avoid neutral or extreme positions Some use 5-point others use 7-point scale Issue of "uncertain"; include or code missing as such

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Semantic Differential Scale

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Developed by Charles Osgood to study the connotative meaning of concepts Used for measuring attitudes or multidimensional psychosocial traits Rating of a given concept on a series of bipolar adjectives Asked to place a check or "x" on a line along a continuum with a 7-point rating Adjectives must be appropriate for concept Adjectives tend to cluster along three independent dimensions Evaluation - effective/ineffective; fair/unfair Potency - strong/weak; large/small Activity - active/passive; fast/slow During construction, researcher decides on dimensions Scoring - assigned a number which is summed to get a total score Advantage - highly flexible

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Q-Sort Method

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Developed by William Stevenson to study people's subjectivity Named after a form of factor analysis called the "Q" method Participants presented with a set of cards on which are written words or phrases Typically, 50-100 cards to be sorted into 9-11 piles with the number of cards to be put into each pile predetermined by the researcher Advantage -Q-sort is versatile and can be applied to a wide variety of problems Limitation - must be done in person and time-consuming

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