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ecology

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the study of the interactions between organisms and the environment

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organismal ecology

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concerned with how an organism's structure, physiology, and behavior meet the challenge posed by its environment

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population

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a group of individuals of the same species living in an area

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population ecology

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analyzes factors that affect population size and how and why it changes through time

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community

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a group of populations of different species in an area

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community ecology

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examines how interactions between species affect community structure and organziation

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ecosystem

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a community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with which these organisms interact

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ecosystem ecology

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emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling between organisms and the environment

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landscape ecology

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focuses on the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems

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biosphere

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global ecosystem; sum of all the planet's ecosystems and landscapes

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global ecology

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examines how the regional exchange of energy and materials influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the biosphere

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climate

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the long term prevailing weather conditions in a given area; four factors that affect climate are temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind

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macroclimate

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the general climate of a large area

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microclimate

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the climate of a small, specific place within an area as contrasted with the climate of the entire area

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explain how Earth's curvature and axis of rotation influence the amount of sunlight reaching a given area, and how these factors influences the temperature and precipitation in that area

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Earth's curved shape causes latitudinal variation in the intensity of sunlight; the intense solar radiation at the equator causes a global pattern of air circulation and precipitation

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why is the Pacific Northwest so rainy?

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ocean currents influence the climate along the coasts by heating or cooling overlying air masses that pass across the land

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what causes the Mediterranean climate?

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the Gulf Stream carries warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic

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"rain shadow" effect

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when warm, moist air approaches a mountain, the air rises and cool, releasing moisture on the windward side of the peak; on the leeward side of the mountain, cooler, dry air descends absorbing moisture, producing a "rain shadow" effect; determines where many deserts are found

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what effect does elevation have on climate?

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every 1,000 m increase in elevation produces an average temperature drop of 6 degrees C, equivalent to that produced by an 880 km increase in latitude

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abiotic

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nonliving factors

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biotic

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living factors

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give two examples of how global climate change can alter the current range of species

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fires can kill moody plants and prevent a savanna from turning into a woodland that climate could support; hurricanes and other storms create openings for new species in many tropical and temperate forests

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biome

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major life zones characterized by vegetation type or by the physical environment

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two abiotic factors most important in determining the distribution of the biome

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annual mean precipitation and annual mean temperature

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tropical forest

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1. tropical rain forest: 200-400 cm.year; tropical dry forest: 150-200 cm/year || 2. 25-29 degree C || 3. equatorial and sub-equatorial regions || 4. flora: broadleaf evergreens in rainforests; fauna: millions of species, animal diversity is higher than any other biome, animals are adapted to vertically layered environments and are inconspicuous

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desert

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1. low and highly variable, less than 30 cm/year || 2. varies seasonally and daily (exceed 50 degrees C or fall bellow -30 degrees C) || 3. occur in bands near 30 degrees north and south latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents || 4. flora: low, widely scattered vegetation, succulents, deeply rooted shrubs, adaptations: tolerance to heat, desecration, water storage, reduced leave surface area, physical defenses; fauna: active at night and can conserve water

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savanna

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1. 30-50 cm/year || 2. averages 24-29 degrees C || 3. equatorial and sub-equatorial regions || 4. flora: scattered trees are thorny and have small leaves, adaptation to relatively dry conditions, grasses and forbs cover the ground; fauna: wildebeests, zebras, lions, hyenas, insects

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chaparral

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1. 30-50 cm/year; highly seasonal (rainy winters and dry summers) || 2. fall, winter, and spring: 10-12 degrees C; summer: can reach 30 degrees C || 3. mid latitude coastal regions on several continents || 4. flora: shrubs and small trees adapted to frequent fires; fauna: deer, goats, insects, amphibians, small mammals, and birds

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temperate grassland

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1. 30-100 cm/year; highly seasonal || 2. winter: below -10 degrees C; summer: reaches 30 degrees C || 3. typically at midlatitudes, often in the interior of continents || 4. flora: grasses and forbs; fauna: bison, wild horses, prairie dogs

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northern coniferous forest/taiga

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1. 30-70 cm/year || 2. winters are cold || 3. broad band across northern North America and Eurasia to the edge of the Arctic Tundra || flora: cone bearing trees; fauna: migratory birds, moose, brown bears, Siberian tigers

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temperate broadleaf forest

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1. 70-200 cm/year || 2. winter: averages 0 degrees C; summer: humid; max near 35 degrees C || 3. midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand || 4. flora: deciduous trees; fauna: mammals hibernate and birds migrate in winter

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tundra

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1. arctic tundra: 20-60 cm/year; alpine tundra >100 cm/year || 2. winter: below -30 degrees C; summer: less than 10 degrees C || 3. covers expansive areas of the arctic (20% of Earth's land); very high mountaintops at all latitudes || 4. flora: herbaceous, permafrost restricts plant roots; fauna: grazing musk oxen (resident), caribou and reindeer (migratory)

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largest marine biome?

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oceans cover about 75% of the Earth's surface

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photic zones

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have sufficient light of photosynthesis

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aphotic zhones

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have little light penetrating it

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benthic zones

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at the bottom of the photic and aphotic zones and consist of organic and inorganic sediments

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pelagic zones

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open water and made up of the photic and aphotic zones

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oligotrophic

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nutrient poor and general oxygen rich

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eutrophic

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nutrient rich and often depleted of oxygen

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littoral zone

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shallow, well-lit waters close to shore

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limnetic zone

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where water is too deep to support rooted aquatic plants

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zooplankton

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eat phytoplankton

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phytoplankton

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the collection of photosynthetic organisms that drift near the water's surface

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neritic

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relates to the shallow part of the sea near the coast

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abyssal

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relates to the depths of the ocean

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lakes

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standing bodies of water|| typical autotrophs: phytoplankton || typical heterotrophs: zooplankton || human impact: runoff from fertilized land and dumping of wastes leads to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and fish kills

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wetlands

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inundated by water, supports plants || typical autotrophs: cattails, sedges || typical heterotrophs: crustaceans, aquatic insect larvae, muskrats, frogs, dragonflies, alligators, herons || human impact: draining and filling have destroyed 90% of wetlands

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streams and rivers

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typical autotrophs: phytoplankton, rooted aquatic plants || typical heterotrophs: diverse fishes and invertebrates || human impact: pollution degrades water quality; dams impair natural flow of streams

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estuaries

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transition zone between a river and sea || typical autotrophs: saltmarsh grasses || typical heterotrophs: oysters, crabs, fish species || human impact: filling, dredging, and upstream pollution have disrupted estuaries

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intertidal zones

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periodically submerged and exposed by the tide || typical autotrophs: seagrass, algae || typical heterotrophs: worms, clams, predatory, crustaceans, sponges, sea anemones, small fishes || human impact: oil pollution, rock walls and barriers disrupt intertidal areas

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oceanic pelagic

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open blue water, whose surface is mixed by wind-driven currents || typical autotrophs: bacteria, phytoplankton || typical heterotrophs: zooplankton; large squids, fishes, sea turtles, marine mammals || human impact: overfishing has depleted fish stocks; oceans have been polluted by waste dumping

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coral reefs

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formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals || typical autotrophs: unicellular algae, multicellular green and red algae || typical heterotrophs: corals, fish, invertebrates || human impact: global warming and pollution ; collecting of coral skeletons and overfishing; development of coastal mangroves

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benthic zone

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consists of a seafloor; dark || typical autotrophs: seaweeds, filamentous algae, chemoautotrophic prokaryotes || typical heterotrophs: invertebrates, fishes, giant tube warms || human impact: overfishing has reduced important fish populations; dumping of organic waste leads to oxygen deprived areas

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what role does dispersal play in the study of the distribution of species?

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dispersal is the movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density; the dispersal of organisms is critical to understanding the role of geographic isolation in evolution as well as the broad patterns of species distribution

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five examples of biotic factors that may influence species distribution

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predation, herbivory, the presence or absence of pollinators, food reserves, parasites, pathogens, and competing organisms

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five abiotic factors

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temperature, water and oxygen, salinity, sunlight, rocks and soil

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temperature (abiotic factor)

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cells may rupture if the water they contain freezes; most organisms function best within a specific range of environmental temperature

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water and oxygen (abiotic factor)

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species living at the seashore can dry out as the tide recedes; water affects oxygen availability in aquatic environments and in flooded soils

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salinity (abiotic factor)

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most aquatic organisms are restricted to saltwater or freshwater habitats by their limited ability to osmoregulate; the salt concentration in water in the environment affects the water balance of organisms through osmosis

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sunlight (abiotic factor)

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in aquatic environments, most photosynthesis occurs near the surface; sunlight absorbed by photosynthetic organisms provides the energy that drives most ecosystems

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rocks and soil (abiotic factor)

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in a river, the composition of rocks and soil that make up the river bed can affect water chemistry, which influences the resident organisms; the pH, mineral composition, and physical structure of rocks and soil on land limit the distribution of plants and the animals that feed on them; the pH of soil can limit the distribution of organisms directly (acidic or basic conditions) or indirectly (solubility of nutrients and toxins)

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density

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number of individuals per unit area or volume

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dispersion

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the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population

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immigration

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increases population density

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emigration

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decreases population density

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clumped dispersion pattern

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forming groups may increase the effectiveness of predation of defense; associated with mating behavior

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uniform dispersion pattern

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results from direct interactions between individuals in the population; animals often exhibit uniform dispersion as a result of antagonistic social interactions, such as territoriality

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random dispersion pattern

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the position of each individual in a population is independent of other individuals; occurs in the absence of strong attractions or repulsions among individuals or where key physical or chemical factors are relatively constant across the study area

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birth rates and death rates

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demographers have a particular interest in these population statistics; this data is often presented in a life table

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cohort

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a group of individuals with a common statistical characteristic

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type I survivorship curve

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flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, and then drops steeply as death rates increase among older age-groups

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type II survivorship curve

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a constant death rate over the organism's life span

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type III survivorship curve

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drops sharply at the start, reflecting high death rates for the young, but flattens out as death rates decline for those few individuals that survive the early period of die-off

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reproductive table

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an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population; shows the number of female offspring produced by each age group

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per capita birth and death rates

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allows you to calculate the expected number of births and deaths per unit time in a population

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zero population growth

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per capita birth rate=per capital death rate

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exponential population growth

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when the population increases under ideal conditions like access to abundant food and are free to reproduce at their physiological capacity

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two examples of conditions that might lead to exponential population growth in natural populations

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populations that are introduced into new environments or a population's numbers were drastically reduced and are rebounding

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carrying capacity

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the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain

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six examples of limiting resources that can influence carrying capacity

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energy, shelter, refuge from predators, nutrient availability, water, suitable nesting sites

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K-selection

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density-dependent selection; selection for traits that are sensitive to population density and are favored at high densities

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R-selection

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density-independent selection; selection for traits that maximize reproductive success at low densities

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life history of an organism

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based on the traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival

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three variables that form the life history of a species

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when reproduction begins, how often the organism reproduces, and how many offspring are produced per reproductive episode

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density-independent regulation

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a birth rate or death rate that does not change with population density

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density-dependent regulation

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a death rate that rises as population density rises or a birth rate that falls with rising density

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metapopulation

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when a number of local populations are linked

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