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Development

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Orderly and lasting growth, adaptation, and change over the course of a lifetime.

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Discontinuous theories of development

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Theories describing human development as occurring through a fixed sequence of distinct, predictable stages governed by inborn factors.

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Cognitive development

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Gradual orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated.

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Schemes

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Mental patterns that guide behavior.

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Adaptation

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The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment by mean of assimilation and accommodation.

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Assimilation

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Understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes. (Piaget)

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Accomodation

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Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations. (Piaget)

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Equalibration

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The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences.

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Constructivism

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View of cognitive development that emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding of reality.

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Sensorimotor stage

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Stage during which infants learn about their surrounding by using their senses and motor skills. (Birth to 2 years) (Piaget)

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Reflexes

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Inborn automatic responses to stimuli (e.g. blinking in response to bright light).

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Object permanance

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Understanding that an object exists even if it is out of sight.

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Preoperational stage

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Stage at which children learn to represent thing in the mind. (2 to 7 years)

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Conservation

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The concept that certain properties of an object (such as weight) remain the same regardless of changes in other properties (such as length).

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Centration

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Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation.

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Reversibility

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The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse one's thinking to return to the starting point.

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Egocentric

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Believing that everyone views the world as you do.

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Concrete operational stage

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Stage at which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use these skills only in dealing with familiar situations. (7 to 11 years)

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Inferred reality

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The meaning of stimuli in the context of relevant information.

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Seriation

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Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect such as size, weight, or volume.

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Transivity

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A skill learned during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development in which individuals can mentally arrange and compare objects.

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Formal operational stage

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Stage at which one can deal abstractly with hypothetical situations and reason logically. (11 years to adulthood)

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Developmentally appropriate education

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Instruction felt to be adapted to the current development status of children (rather than to their age alone).

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Sign systems

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Symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate, and solve problems.

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Self regulation

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The ability to think and solve problems without the help of others.

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Private speech

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Children's self-talk, which guides their thinking and action; eventually internalized as silent inner speech.

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Zone of proximal development

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Level of development immediately above a person's present level.

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Scaffolding

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Support for learning and problem solving; might include clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner.

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Emergent literacy

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Knowledge and skills relating to reading that children usually develop from experience with books and other print media before the beginning of formal reading instruction in school.

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Constructivist theories of learning

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Theories that state learners must individually discover and transform complex information, checking new information against old rules and revising rules when they no longer work.

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Cognitive apprenticeship

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The process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert, either and adult or an older or more advanced peer.

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Discovery learning

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A constructivist approach to teaching in which students are encouraged to discover principles for themselves.

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Self-regulated learners

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Students who have knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them.

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Mediated learning

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Assisted learning; an approach in which the teacher guides instruction by means of scaffolding to help students master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning.

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Reciprocal teaching

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A small-group teaching method based on principles of question generation; through instruction and modeling, teachers foster metacognition skills primarily to improve the reading performance of students who have poor comprehension.

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Cooperative learning

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Instructional approaches in which students work in small mixed ability groups.

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Student teams-achievement divisions (STAD)

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A cooperative learning method for mixed-ability groupings involving team recognition and group responsibility for individual learning.

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Cooperative integrated reading and composition (CIRC)

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A comprehensive program for teaching and reading and writing in the upper elementary grades; student work in four-member cooperative learning teams.

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Jigsaw

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A cooperative learning model in which student are assigned to six-member teams to work on academic material that has been broken down into sections for each member.

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Learning together

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A cooperative learning model in which students in four or five member heterogeneous groups work together on assignments.

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Group investigation

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A cooperative learning model in which students work in small groups using cooperative inquiry, group discussion, and cooperative planning and projects, afterward making presentations to the whole class on their findings.

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Cooperative scripting

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A study method in which students work in pairs and take turns orally summarizing sections of material to be learned.

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Problem solving

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The application of knowledge and skills to achieve certain goals.

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Means-ends analysis

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A problem-solving technique that encourages identifying the goal (ends) to be attained, the current situation, and what needs to be done (means) to reduce the difference between the two conditions.

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Instrumental enrichment

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A thinking skills program in which students work through a series of paper and pencil exercises that are designed to develop various intellectual abilities.

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Psychosocial crisis

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According to Erikson, the set of critical issues that individuals must address as they pass through each of the eight life stages.

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Erikson's Stage I

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Trust vs. mistrust (Birth to 18 months)

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Erikson's Stage II

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Autonomy vs. doubt (18 months to 3 years)

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Erikson's Stage III

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Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years)

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Erikson's Stage IV

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Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years)

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Erikson's Stage V

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Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years)

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Erikson's Stage VI

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Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood)

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Erikson's Stage VII

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Generativity vs. self absorption (Middle Adulthood)

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Erikson's Stage VIII

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Integrity vs. despair (Late adulthood)

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Heteronomous Morality

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In Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which children think that rules are unchangeable and that breaking them leads automatically to punishment.

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Autonomous morality

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In Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which a person understands that people make rules and that punishments are not automatic.

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Moral dilemmas

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In Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, hypothetical situations that require a person to consider values of right and wrong.

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Preconventional level of morality

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Stages 1 and 2 in Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgments in their own interests.

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Conventional level of morality

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Stages 3 and 4 in Kohlber's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgements in consideration of others.

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Postconventional level of morality

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Stage 5 and 6 in Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgements in relation to abstract principles.

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Peers

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People who are equal in age or status.

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Prosocial behavior

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Actions that show respect and caring for others.

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Solitary play

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Play that occurs alone.

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Parallel play

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Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.

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Associative Play

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Play that is much like parallel play but with increased levels of interaction in the form of sharing, turn taking, and general interest in what others are doing.

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Cooperative play

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Play in which children join together to achieve a common goal.

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Self-concept

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A person's perception of his or her own strengths, weaknesses, abilities, attitudes, and values.

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Self-esteem

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The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors.

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Social comparisson

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The process of comparing oneself to others to gather information to evaluate and judge one's abilities, attitudes, and conduct.

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Reflectivity

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The tendency to analyze oneself and on's own thoughts.

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Foreclosure

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An adolescent's premature establishment of an identity base on parental choices, rather than his or her own desires.

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Identity diffusion

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Inability to develop a clear direction or sense of self.

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Moratorium

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Experimentation with occupational and ideological choices without definite commitment.

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Identity achievement

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A state of consolidation reflecting conscious, clear-cut decisions concerning occupation and ideology.

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Puberty

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Developmental stage at which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

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Response to intervention

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Policies in which struggling children are given intensive assistance and evaluated for possible special-education services only if they fail to respond.

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Full inclusion

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Arrangement whereby students who have disabilities or are ate risk receive all their instruction in a general education setting: support services are brought to the student.

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Mainstreaming

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The temporal, instructional, and social integration of eligible exceptional children with normal peers based on an ongoing, individually determined education planning and programming process.

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Least restrictive environment

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The provision in public law 94-142 (renamed the individual with disabilities education act or IDEA) that requires students with disabilities to be educated to the maximum extent appropriate alongside their peers without disability.

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Inclusive education

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Students attend their home school with their age and grade peers. It requires that the proportion of students labeled for special services is relatively uniform for all schools within a particular district...included students are not isolated into special classes or wings within the school.

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Partial Inclusion

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Students receive most of their instruction in general education settings, but the student may be pulled out to another instructional setting when such a setting is deemed appropriate to the students individual needs.

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Culture

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The language, attitudes, ways of behaving, and other aspects of life that characterize a group of people.

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Socioeconomic status

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A measure of prestige within a social group that is most often based on income and education.

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Ethnic group

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A group within a larger society that sees itself as having a common history, social and cultural heritage, and traditions, often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.

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Ethnicity

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A history, culture, and sense of identity shared by a group of people.

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Race

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Visible genetic characteristics of individuals that cause them to be seen as members of the same broad group (e.g. African, Asian, Caucasian).

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Language Minority

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In the United States, native speakers of any language other than English.

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Limited English Proficient (LEP)

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Possessing limited mastery of English.

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English Learners

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Student in U.S. schools who are not native speakers of English.

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Bilingual education

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Instructional program for students who speak little or no English in which some instruction is provided in the native language.

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Multicultural education

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Education that teaches the value of cultural diversity.

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Content integration

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Teachers use of examples, data and other information from a variety of cultures.

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Knowledge construction

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Helping students understand how the knowledge we take in is influenced by our own origins and points of view.

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Prejudice reduction

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A critical goal of multicultural education; involves development of positive relationships and tolerant attitudes among students of different backgrounds.

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Equity pedagogy

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Teaching techniques that facilitate the academic success of students from different ethnic and social groups.

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Empowering school culture

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A school culture in which the institution's organization and practices are conducive to the academic and emotional growth of all students.

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Sex-role behavior

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Socially approved behavior associated with one gender as opposed to the other.

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Gender bias

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Stereotypical views and differential treatment of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other.

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Intelligence

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General aptitude for learning, often measured by the ability to deal with abstractions and solve problems.

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Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

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An intelligent test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100.

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Multiple intelligences

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In Gardener's theory of intelligence, a person's nine separate abilities: logical/mathematical, musical, naturalist, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential

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Aptitude-treatment interaction

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interaction of individual differences in learning with particular teaching methods.

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Behavioral learning theories

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Explanations of learning that emphasize observable changes in behavior.

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Social learning theories

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Learning theories that emphasize not only reinforcement but also the effect of cues on thought and of thought action.

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Learning

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A change in an individual that results from experience.

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Stimuli

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Environmental conditions that activate the senses; the singular stimulus.

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Unconditioned stimulus

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A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response.

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Unconditioned response

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A behavior that is prompted automatically by a stimulus.

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Neutral stimuli

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Stimuli that have no effect on a particular response.

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Conditioned stimulus

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A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response after having been paired with an unconditional stimulus.

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Classical Conditioning

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The process of repeatedly associateing a previously netral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response.

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Operant conditioning

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The use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrences of behavior.

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Skinner box

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An apparatus developed by B.F. Skinner for observing animal behavior in experiments of operant conditioning.

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Consequences

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Pleasant or unpleasant conditions that follow behaviors and affect the frequency of future behaviors.

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Reinforcer

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A pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior.

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Primary reinforcer

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Food, water, or other consequence that satisfies a basic need.

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Secondary reinforcer

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A consequence that people learn to value through association with a primary reinforcer.

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Positive reinforcer

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Pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior.

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Negative reinforcer

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Release from an unpleasant situation, given to strengthen behavior.

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Premack principle

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Rule stating that enjoyable activities can be used to reinforce participation in less enjoyable activities.

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Intrinsic reinforcers

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Behaviors that a person enjoys engaging in for their own sake, without any other reward.

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Extrinsic reinforcers

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Praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not otherwise do.

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Punishment

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Unpleasant consequences used to weaken behavior.

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Aversive Stimulus

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An unpleasant consequence that a person tries to avoid.

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Presentation punishment

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An aversive stimulus following a behavior, used to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again.

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Removal punishment

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Withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that may be reinforcing a behavior, designed to decrease the chances that the behavior will recur.

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Response cost

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Procedure of charging misbehaving students against their free time or other privileges.

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Time out

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Procedure of removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was being reinforced.

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Shaping

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The teaching of a new skill or behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps toward the desired goal.

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Extinction

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The weakening and eventual elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn.

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Extinction burst

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The increase in levels of behavior in the early stages of extinction.

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Schedule of reinforcement

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A frequency and predictability of reinforcement.

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Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors.

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Variable-ratio (VR) schdule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable number of behaviors.

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Fixed-interval (FI) schedule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time.

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Variable-interval (VI) schedule

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Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable amount of time.

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Maintenance

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Continuation (of behavior).

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Antecedent stimuli

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Events that precede behaviors.

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Cues

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Signals as to which behavior(s) will be reinforced or punished.

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Discrimination

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Perception of and response to differences in stimuli.

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Generalization

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Carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from one setting or task to another.

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Modeling

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Imitation of others' behavior.

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Observational learning

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Learning by observation and imitation of others.

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Vicarious learning

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Learning based on observation of the consequences of others' behavior.

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Self-regulation

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Rewarding or punishing one's own behavior.

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Cognitive behavior modification

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Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one's own behavior by means of self-talk and self-instruction.

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Information-processing theory

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Cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge in the mind

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Sensory register

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Component of the memory system in which information is received and held for very short periods of time.

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Perception

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A person's interpretation of stimuli.

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Attention

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Active focus on certain stimuli to the exclusion of others.

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Short-term or working memory

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The component of memory in which limited amounts of information can be stored for a few seconds.

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Rehearsal

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Mental repetition of information, which can improve its retention.

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Long-term memory

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The components of memory in which large amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time.

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Episodic memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores images of our personal experiences.

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Semantic memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores facts and general knowledge.

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Procedural memory

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A part of long-term memory that stores information about how to do things.

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Flashbulb memory

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Important event that are fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory.

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Schemata

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Mental networks of related concepts that influence understanding of new information; the singular is schema.

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Levels-of-processing theory

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Explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives.

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Interference

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Inhibition of recall of certain information by the presence of other information in memory.

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Retroactive inhibition

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Decreased ability to recall previously learned information, caused by learning of new information.

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Proactive inhibition

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Decreased ability to learn new information, caused by interference from existing knowledge.

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Proactive facilitation

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Increased ability to learn new information based on the presence of previously acquired information.

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Retroactive facilitation

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Increased comprehension of previously learned information because of the acquisition of new information.

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Primary effect

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The tendency for items at the beginning of a list to recalled more easily than other items.

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Recency effect

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The tendency for items at the end of a list to be recalled more easily than others.

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Automaticity

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A level of rapidity and ease such that tasks can be performed or skills utilized with little mental effort.

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Massed practice

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Technique in which facts or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.

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Distributed practice

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Technique in which items to be learned are repeated in intervals over a period of time.

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Enactment

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A learning process in which individuals physically carry out tasks.

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Verbal learning

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Learning of words (or facts expressed in words).

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Paired-associate learning

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Learning of items in linked pairs so that when one member of a pair is presented, the other can be recalled.

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Short-term working memory

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The component of memory in which limited amounts of information can be stored for a few seconds.

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Serial learning

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Memorization of a series of items in a particular order.

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Free-recall learning

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Learning of a list of items in any order.

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Transfer of learning

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The application of knowledge acquired in one situation to new situations.

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Mnemonics

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Devices or strategies for aiding the memory.

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Keyword method

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A strategy for improving memory by using images to link pairs of items.

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Loci method

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A strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations.

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Pegword method

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A strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set or words or numbers.

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Initial-letter strategies

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Strategies for learning in which initial letters of items to be memorized are made into a more easily remembered word or phrase.

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Rote learning

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Memorization of facts or associations that be essentially arbitrary.

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Meaningful learning

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Mental processing of new information that relates to previously learned knowledge.

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Inert knowledge

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Learned information that could be applied to a wide range of situations but whose use is limited to restricted, often artificial, applications.

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Schema theory

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Theory stating that information is stored in long-term memory in schemata (networks of connected facts and concepts), which provide a structure for making sense of new information.

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Metacognition

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Knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn (thinking about thinking).

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Metacognitive skills

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Methods for learning, studying, or solving problems.

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Self-questioning strategies

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Learning strategies that call on student to ask themselves, who, what, where, and how questions as they read material.

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Note-taking

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A study strategy that requires decisions about what to write.

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Summarizing

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Writing brief statements that represent the main idea of the information being read.

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Outlining

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Representing the main points of material in hierarchical format.

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Concept mapping

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Diagramming main ideas and the connections between them.

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PQ4R method

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A study strategy that has students preview, question, reflect, recite, and review material.

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Advanced organizer

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Activities and techniques that orient students to the material before reading or class presentation.

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Analogies

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Images, concepts, or narratives that compare new material to information students already understand.

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Elaboration

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The process of connecting new material to information or ideas already in the learner's mind.

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Student teams- achievement divisions (STAD)

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A cooperative learning method for mixed-ability groupings involving team recognition and group responsibility for individual learning.

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Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS)

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A structured cooperative learning method in which students work in pairs taking turns as teacher and learner, using specific metacognitive strategies.

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Critical thinking

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The ability to make rational decisions about what to do or what to believe.

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QAIT model

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A model of effective instruction that focuses on elements teachers can directly control: quality, appropriatness, incentive, and time.

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tracks

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Curriculum sequences to which students of specified achievement or ability level are assigned.

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Between-class ability grouping

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The practice of grouping students in separate classes according to ability level.

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Within-class ability grouping

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A system of accommodating student differences by dividing a class of student into two or more ability groups for instruction in certain subjects.

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Untracking

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A focus on having student in mixed-ability groups and holding them to high standards but providing many ways for students to reach those standards.

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Regrouping

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A method of ability grouping in which students in mixed-ability classes are assigned to reading or math classes on the basis of their performance levels.

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Joplin plan

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A regrouping method in which students are grouped across grade lines for reading instruction.

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Nongraded program

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Programs, generally at the primary level, that combine children of different ages in the same class. Also called cross-age grouping programs.

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Differentiated instruction

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An approach to teaching that adapts the content, level, pace, and products of instruction to accommodate different needs of diverse students in regular classes.

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Success for all

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A comprehensive approach to prevention and early intervention for preschool, kindergarten, and grades through 8, with one-to-one tutoring, family support services, and changes in instruction designed to prevent students from falling behind.

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Interactive whiteboard

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Larch touchscreen that teachers can use to display and modify digital content for an entire class.

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Electronic response device (clickers)

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Electronic devices on which students enter answers to questions and have them registered on a computer or interactive whiteboard.

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Word processing or desktop publishing

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A computer application for writing compositions that lends itself to revising and editing.

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Spreadsheets

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Computer programs that convert data into tables, charts, and graphs.

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Databases

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Computer programs that contain large volumes of information, such as encyclopedias and atlases.

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Hypertext and hypermedia

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Related information that appears when a computer user clicks on a word or picture.

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Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

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Individualized instruction administered by computer.

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Drill and practice

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Application of computer technology to provide students with practice of skills and knowledge.

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Tutorial programs

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Computer programs that teach new material, varying their content and pace according to the student's response.

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Instructional games

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Drill and practice exercises presented in game format.

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Internet

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A large and growing telecommunications network of computers around the world that communicate electronically.

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Wiki

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A website such as wikipedia, containing content to which the use can add or make modifications.

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Simulation software

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Computer programs that model real-life phenomena to promote problem-solving abilities and motivate interest in the areas concerned.

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Problem solving program

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Program designed specifically to develop students' critical thinking skills.

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Multimedia

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Electronic material such as graphics, video animation, and sound, which can be integrated into classroom projects.

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CD-ROM

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A computer database designed for "read-only memory" that provides massive amounts of information, including pictures and audio; it can be of particular importance to students doing projects and research activities.

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Digital video and photographs

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Video and photographs that can be loaded into a computer and shared electronically.

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Integrated learning systems

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Commercially developed comprehensive multipurpose packages of interlinked management instructional software, running on a computer network.

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Embedded multimedia

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Video content woven into teachers' lessons.

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Motivation

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The influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.

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Deficiency needs

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Basic requirements for physical and psychological well-being as identified by Maslow.

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Growth needs

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Needs for knowing, appreciating, and understanding, which people try to satisfy after their basic needs are met.

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Self-actualization

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A person's ability to develop his or her full potential.

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Attribution theory

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A theory of motivation that focuses on how people explain the causes of their own successes and failures.

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Locus of control

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A personality trait that determines whether people attribute responsibility for their own failure or success to internal or external factors.

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Expectancy theory

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A theory of motivation based on the belief that peoples' efforts to achieve depend on their expectation for reward.

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Expectancy-valence modle

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A theory that relates the probability and the incentive value of success to motivation.

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Achievement motivation

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The desire to experience success and to participate in activities which success depends on personal effort and abilities.

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Learning goals

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The goals of students who are motivated primarily by desire for knowledge acquisition and self-improvement. Also called mastery goals.

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Performance goals

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The goals of students who are motivated primarily by a desire to gain recognition from others and to earn good grades.

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Intrinsic incentive

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An aspect of an activity that people enjoy and therefore, find motivating.

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Extrinsic incentive

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A reward that is external to the activity, such as recognition or a good grade.

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Feedback

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Information on the results of one's efforts.

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Contingent praise

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Praise that is effective because it refers directly to specific task performances.

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Learners with exceptionalities

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Any individual whose physical, mental or behavioral performance is so different from the norm - either higher or lower - that additional services are needed to meet the individual's needs.

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Disability

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The limitation of a function, such as cognitive processing or physical or sensory abilities.

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Handicap

answer

A condition imposed on a person with disabilities by society, the physical environment, or the person's attitude.

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Mental retardation

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A condition, usually present at birth, that results in below average intellectual skills and poor adaptive behavior.

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Learning disabilities

answer

Disorders that impede academic progress of people who arnot mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed.

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Speech disorder

answer

Oral articulation problems, occurring most frequently among children in the early elementary school grades.

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Language disorder

answer

Impairments in one's ability to understand language or to express ideas in ones native language.

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Emotional and behavioral disorders

answer

Exceptionalities characterized by problems with learning, interpersonal relationships, and control of feelings and behavior.

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Conduct disorders

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Socioemotional and behavioral disorders that are indicated in individuals who, for example, are chronically disobedient or disruptive.

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Autism

answer

A category of disability that significantly affects social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and educational performance.

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Sensory impairments

answer

Problems with the ability to receive information through the body's senses.

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Vision loss

answer

Degree of uncorrectable inability to see well.

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Hearing disability

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Degree of deafness, uncorrectable inability to hear well.

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Giftedness

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Exceptional intellectual ability, creativity, or talent.

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Acceleration programs

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Rapid promotion through advanced studies for students who are gifted or talented.

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Enrichment programs

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Programs in which assignments or activities are designed to broaden or deepen the knowledge of students who master classroom lessons quickly.

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Special education

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Programs that address the needs of students with mental, emotional, or physical disabilities.

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Public law 94-142

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Federal law enacted in 1975 requiring provision of special-education services to eligible students.

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Individuals with disabilities educational act (IDEA)

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P.:. 101-476, a federal law enacted in 1990 that changed the name of P.L. 94-142 and broadened services to adolescents with disabilities.

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Mainstreaming or inclusion

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The temporal, instructional, and social integration of eligible children having exceptionalities with peers who do not have exceptionalities based on ongoing, individually determined educational planning and program processing.

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Individual education program (IEP)

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A program tailored to the needs of a learner with exceptionalities.

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Colaboration

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Process in which professionals work cooperatively to provide educational services.

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Levels-of-processing-theory

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Explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives.

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Dual code theory of memory.

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Theory suggesting that information coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than information coded in only one of those two ways.

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