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Absolute Threshold

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The minimum amount of energy in a sensory stimulus detected 50% of the time

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Signal detection theory

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a theory that assumes that the detection of faint sensory stimuli depends not only upon a person's physiological sensitivity to a stimulus but also upon his decision criterion for detection, which is based on non sensory factors.

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Difference Threshold

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The minimum difference between two sensory stimuli detected 50 percent of the time. The difference threshold is also sometimes referred to as the just noticeable difference or jnd.

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Weber's Law

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For each type of sensory judgment that we can make, the measured difference threshold is a constant fraction of the standard stimulus value used to measure it. This constant fraction is different for each type of sensory judgment.

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Steven's power law

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the perceived magnitude of a stimulus is equal to its actual physical intensity raised to some constant power. The constant power is different for each type of sensory judgment.

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Sensory Adaptation

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Our sensitivity to unchanging and repetitious stimuli disappears over time

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Wavelength

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the distance in one cycle of a wave, from one crest to the next

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Amplitude

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the amount of energy in a wave, its intensity, which is the height of the wave at its crest

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Frequency

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the number of times a wave cycles in one second

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transduction

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the conversion of physical energy into neural signals that the brain can understand

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Accommodation

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the focusing of light waves from objects of different distances directly on the retina

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nearsightedness

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a visual problem in which the light waves from distant objects come into focus in from the the retina, blurring the images of these objects

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farsightedness

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a visual problem in which the light waves from nearby objects come into focus behind the retina, blurring the images of these objects

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Retina

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the light-sensitive layer of the eye that is composed of three layers of cells - ganglion, bipolar, and receptor (rods and cones)

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Three layers of the retina

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Ganglion, bipolar, and receptor

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What are receptors

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rods and cones

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Blindsight

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a condition in which a blind person has some spared visual capacities in the absence of any visual awareness

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rods

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receptor cells in the retina that are principally responsible for dim light and achromatic vision

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cones

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receptor cells in the retina that are principally responsible for bright light and color vision

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fovea

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a tiny pit in the center of the retina filled with cones

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dark adaptation

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the process by which the rods and cones through internal chemical changes become become more and more sensitive to light in dim light conditions

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trichromatic theory

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a theory of color vision that assumes that there are three types of cones, each only activated by wavelength ranges of light corresponding roughly to blue, green, and red. It further assumes that all of the various colors that we can see are mixtures of various levels of activation of the three types of cones. If all three are equally activated, we see white.

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Additive Mixtures

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direct mixtures of different wavelengths of light in which all the wavelengths reach the retina and are added together.

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Subtractive Mixtures

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mixtures of wavelengths of light in which are absorbed (subtracted) and so do not get reflected from the mixtures to the retina

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complementary colors

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wavelengths of light that when added together produce white

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Opponent-process theory

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of color vision that assumes that there are three opponent-process cell systems (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white) that process color information after it has been processed by the cones. The colors in each system oppose one another in that if one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited.

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Composite theory (sight)

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color information is processed by the cones according to trichromatic theory, but color information is processed at the post-receptor cell level according to opponent process theory

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hair cells

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the receptor cells for hearing. they line the basilar membrane inside the cochlea

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nerve deafness

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hearing loss created by damage to the hair cells or the auditory nerve fibers in the inner ear

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conduction deafness

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hearing loss created by damage to one of the structures in the ear responsible for mechanically conducting the auditory information to the inner ear.

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place theory

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a theory of pitch perception which assumes that there is a specific location along the basilar membrane that will maximally respond to a particular frequency, thereby indicating the pitch to the brain. As this location goes down the basilar membrane from the oval window, the pitch goes down from 20,000 Hz to 20 Hz.

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Frequency theory

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a theory of pitch perception that assumes that the frequency of the sound wave is mimicked by the firing rate of the entire basilar membrane.

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Volley principle

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cells taking turns firing will increase the maximum firing rate for a group of cells

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Sensation

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the initial information gathering and recoding by the sensory structures

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perception

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the interpretation by the brain of sensory information

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bottom-up processing

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the processing of incoming sensory information as it travels up from the sensory structures to the brain

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top-down

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the brains use of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations to interpret sensory information.

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perceptual set

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the interpretation of ambiguous sensory information in terms of how our past experiences have set us to perceive it.

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Contextual effect

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the use of the present context of sensory information to determine its meaning

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figure and ground principle

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the gestalt perception organizational principle that the brain organizes sensory information into a figure or figures (the center of attention) and ground (the less distinct background)

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closure

answer

the gestalt perceptual organizational principle that the brain completes incomplete figures to form meaningful objects

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subjective contour

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a line or shape that is perceived to be present but does not really exist. The brain creates it during perception

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perceptual constancy

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the perceptual stability of the size, shape, brightness, and color for familiar objects seen at varying distances, different ables, and under different lighting conditions

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depth perception

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our ability to perceive the distance of objects from us.

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retinal disparity

answer

a binocular depth cue referring to the fact that as the disparity between the two retinal images of an object increases, the distance of the object from us decreases.

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linear perspective

answer

a monocular depth cue referring to the fact that as parallel lines recede away from us, they appear to converge--the greater the distance, the more they seem to converge. Sometimes referred to as perspective convergence.

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Interposition

answer

a monocular depth cue referring to the fact that if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer to us.

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neurons

answer

cells that transmit information within the nervous system

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glial cells

answer

cells in the nervous system that comprise the support system for the neurons

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dendrites

answer

fibers projecting out of the cell body of a neuron whose function is to receive information from other neurons

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cell body

answer

the part of the neuron that contains its nucleus and the other biological machinery to keep the cell alive and that decides whether or not to generate a neural impulse in order to pass incoming information on to other neurons

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axon

answer

the long, singular fiber projecting out of the cell body of a neuron whose function is to conduct the neural impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals triggering chemical communication with other neurons.

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myelin sheath

answer

an insulation layer covering an axon that allows for faster neural impulses

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neurotransmitter

answer

a naturally occurring chemical in the nervous system that specializes in transmitting information between neurons

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synaptic gap

answer

the microscopic gap between neurons across which neurotransmitters travel to carry their messages to other neurons

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positron emission tomography (PET) scan

answer

a visual display of the activity levels in various areas in the brain generated by detecting the amount of positron emission created by the metabolization of radioactive glucose in each area

question

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

answer

a computerized image of the activity levels of various areas in the brain generated by detecting the amount of oxygen brought to each area.

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agonist

answer

a drug or poison that increases the activity of one or more neurotransmitters.

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antagonist

answer

a drug or poison that decreases the activity of one or more neurotransmitters

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acetylcholine (ACh)

answer

A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, and muscle movement

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Dopamine

answer

a neurotransmitter involved in arousal and mood states, thought processes, and physical movement

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parkinson's disease

answer

a disease in which the person has movement problems such as muscle tremors, difficulty initiating movements, and rigidity of movement. These movement problems stem from a scarcity of dopamine in the basal ganglia

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blood-brain barrier

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a protective mechanism by which the blood capillaries supplying the brain create a barrier that prevents dangerous substances access to the brain.

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L-dopa

answer

a drug for parkinson's disease that contains the precursors to dopamine so that once it is in the brain, it will be converted to dopamine

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serotonin and norepinephrine

answer

neurotransmitters involved in levels of arousal, mood, and sleep and eating

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Selective Serotonin ReUptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

answer

antidepressant drugs that achieve their agonistic effect on serotonin by selectively blocking its reuptake

question

Selective Serotonin and Norepinephrine ReUptake Inhibitors (SSNRIs)

answer

Antidepressant drugs that achieve their agonistic effect on serotonin and norepinephrine by selectively blocking their reuptake

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GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

answer

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It is involved in lowering arousal and anxiety and regulating movement.

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Glutamate

answer

the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It is involved in memory storage, pain perception, strokes, and schizophrenia.

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Endorphins

answer

A group of neurotransmitters that are involved in pain relief and feelings of pleasure

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Central nervous system (CNS)

answer

The brain and spinal cord

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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

answer

the art of the nervous system that links the CNS with the body's sensory receptors, muscles, and glands

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Interneurons

answer

Neurons that integrate information within the CNS through their communication with each other and between sensory and motor neurons in the spinal cord

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Sensory neurons

answer

neurons in the PNS that carry information to the CNS from sensory receptors, muscles, and glands.

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Motor neurons

answer

neurons in the PNS that carry movement commands from the CNS out to the rest of the body

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spinal cord

answer

the conduit between the brain and the PNS for incoming sensory data and outgoing movement commands to the muscles

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Spinal reflex

answer

A simple automatic action of the spinal cord not requiring involvement of the brain, such as the knee-jerk reflex

question

Somatic (Skeletal) nervous system

answer

the part of the PNS that carries sensory input from receptors to the CNS and relays commands from the CNS to the skeletal muscles to control their movements

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Autonomic Nervous System

answer

the part of the PNS that regulates the functioning of our internal environment (glands and organs like the heart, lungs, and stomach)

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Sympathetic nervous system

answer

the part of the nervous system that is in control when we are highly aroused, as in an emergency, and need to prepare for defensive action.

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Parasympathetic nervous system

answer

the part of the automatic nervous system that returns the body to its normal resting state after having been highly aroused, as in an emergency.

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Endocrine glandular system

answer

the body's other major communication system. Communication is achieved through hormones that are secreted by the endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream to their target sites

question

hormone

answer

a chemical messenger that is produced by an endocrine gland and carried by the bloodstream to target tissues throughout the body

question

Pituitary Gland

answer

the most influential gland in the endocrine glandular system. It releases hormones for human growth and hormones that direct other endocrine glands to release their hormones

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Emotion

answer

a complex psychological state that involves a state of physiological arousal, an outward behavioral expression of the emotion, and a cognitive appraisal of the situation to determine the specific emotion and its intensity

question

James-Lange Theory

answer

a theory of emotion proposing that an emotion is determined from a cognitive appraisal of the physiological arousal and behavioral responses, which occur first.

question

Cannon-Brand Theory

answer

a theory of emotion proposing that an emotion is determined from simultaneously occurring physiological arousal, behavioral responses, and cognitive appraisal

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Schachter-Singer two factor theory

answer

A theory of emotion proposing that an emotion is determined by cognitive appraisal of the physiological arousal and the entire environmental situation.

question

Medulla

answer

a brain stem structure involved in many essential body functions, such as heartbeat, beating, blood pressure, digestion, and swallowing

question

Pons

answer

a brain stem structure that serves as a bridge between the cerebellum and the rest of the brain and is involved in sleep and dreaming

question

Reticular formation

answer

a network of neurons running up the center of the brain stem that is responsible for our different levels of arousal and consciousness

question

Cerebellum

answer

a part of the brain involved in the coordination of our movements, sense of balance, and motor learning.

question

Thalamus

answer

a part of the brain that serves as a relay station for incoming sensory information

question

basal ganglia

answer

a part of the brain that is involved in the initiation and execution of movements

question

limbic system

answer

a group of brain structures (hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala) that play an important role in our survival, memory, and emotions

question

hypothalamus

answer

a part of the brain that is involved in regulating basic drive such as eating, drinking, and having sex. It also directs the endocrine glandular system through its control of the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system to maintain the body's internal environment.

question

Hippocampus

answer

a part of the brain involved in the formation of memories

question

amygdala

answer

a part of the brain that is involved in emotions by influencing aggression, anger, and fear and by providing the emotional element of our memories and the interpretation of emotional expressions in others.

question

Cerebral cortex

answer

the layers of interconnected cells covering the brains two hemispheres. this is the control and information processing center for the nervous system; it is where perception, memory, language, decision making, and all other higher-level cognitive processing occur

question

corpus callosum

answer

the bridge of neurons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres

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Frontal lobe

answer

the area in each cerebral hemisphere in front of the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. the motor cortex is in this lobe

question

Parietal Lobe

answer

the area in each cerebral hemisphere in back of the central fissure and above lateral fissure. The somatosensory cortex is in this lobe.

question

Temporal Lobe

answer

the area in each cerebral hemisphere located beneath the lateral fissure. The primary auditory cortex is in this lobe.

question

Occipital Lobe

answer

the area located in the lower back of each cerebral hemisphere. the primary visual cortex is in this lobe

question

Motor Cortex

answer

the strip of cortex in each cerebral hemisphere in the frontal lobe directly in front of the central fissure, which allows us to move different parts of our body.

question

Somatosensory Cortex

answer

the strip of cortex in each cerebral hemisphere in the parietal lobe directly in back of the central fissure, which allows us to sense pressure, temperature, and pain in different parts of our body as well as the position of our body parts.

question

Association Cortex

answer

all of the cerebral cortex except those area devoted to primary sensory processing or motor processing. This is where all the higher-level cognitive processing that requires the association (integration) of information, such as perception and language, occurs.

question

Broca's Area

answer

An area in the cerebral cortex responsible for fluent speech production. It is in the left frontal lobe of the majority of people, regardless of handedness.

question

Wernicke's Area

answer

an area in the cerebral cortex responsible for comprehension of speech and text. It is in the left temporal lobe of the majority of people, regardless of handedness.

question

Consciousness

answer

an individual's subjective awareness of their inner thinking and feeling and their external environment

question

REM- Rapid Eye Movement Sleep

answer

the stage in sleep that is characterized by rapid eye movements and brain wave patterns that resemble those for an awake state and in which most dreaming occurs. REM sleep is sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep because the bodily muscles are immobilized but much of the brain is highly active.

question

Psychology

answer

the science of behavior and mental processes

question

Four Major Research Perspectives

answer

Biological cognitive behavioral sociocultural

question

Biological Perspective

answer

a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how the brain, nervous system, and other physiological mechanisms produce behavior and mental processes

question

cognitive perspective

answer

a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how mental processes, such as perception, memory, and problem solving, work and impact behavior

question

Behavioral Perspective

answer

a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how external environmental events condition observable behavior

question

Sociocultural Perspective

answer

a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how other people and the cultural context impact behavior and mental processes

question

hindsight bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

answer

the tendency, after learning about an outcome, to be overconfident in one's ability to have predicted it.

question

Descriptive Methods

answer

research methods whose main purpose is to provide objective and detailed descriptions of behavior and mental processes

question

naturalistic observation

answer

a descriptive research method in which the behavior of interest is observed in its natural setting, and the researcher does not intervene in the behavior being observed.

question

participant observation

answer

a descriptive research method in which the observer becomes part of the group being observed

question

case study

answer

a descriptive research method in which the researcher studies an individual in depth over an extended period of time.

question

Survey research

answer

a descriptive research method in which the researcher uses questionnaires and interviews to collect information about the behavior, beliefs, and attitudes of particular groups of people.

question

Population

answer

the entire group of people that a researcher is studying

question

sample

answer

the subset of a population that actually participates in a research study

question

Random sampling

answer

a sampling technique that obtains a representative sample of a population by ensuring that each individual in a population has an equal opportunity to be in the sample

question

correlational study

answer

a research study in which two variables are measured to determine if they are related (how well either one predicts the other)

question

Variable

answer

any factor that can take on more than one value

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