question

Purpose of applied social psych

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draws on theories and methodologies from social psychology to understand and alleviate social and practical problems

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social psychology

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The scientific study of how people think about, feel about, influence and relate to one another. Social psychologists are interested in the interplay between personality and situational influences.

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3 key components of scientific inquiry?

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1. Theory guides predictions 2. Establish methods that allow your ideas to be refuted or supported (key components include gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence) 3. Conduct research in such a way that it can replicated

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3 things needed to infer causality

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Variables must be related-correlation IV must come before DV-time order Must manipulate IV and control extraneous variables--non-spurious

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How does ingroup-outgroup bias develop--3 ways

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Social Learning (classical conditioning, modeling) Simply see yourself as part of a particular group (class divided) Competition (Robber's Cave Experiment)

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"class divided" example

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divided a class in blue eyes brown eyes and children saw ingroup as better that out group because teacher said so

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Robber's Cave experiment

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1. Group formation-divided campers up arbitrarily 2. introduced conflict-set up competition between groups 3. reduce conflict with-superordinate goal

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3 ways to use a multimethod approach

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1. Use various types of assessments including, for example, self-report, behavioral, physiological 2. Use multiple levels of analysis 3. Use interdisciplinary approaches

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Triangulation/methodological pluralism

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use of multiple measures in a single study

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Applied social psychology focuses on 2 steps--

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1. Developing a scientific understanding of social and practical problems 2. Drawing on that understanding to design interventions to ameliorate (to make something bad,better) and/or alleviate societal and/or personal issues

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3 key ways intergroup conflict develops

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1. social learning 2. conflict 3. simply establishing groups

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5 Core values of research methods--5 things you need to be a scientist

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1. accuracy 2. objectivity 3. skepticism 4. open-mindedness 5. ethics

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5 goals/steps of understanding a phenomenon

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1. description-describing the phenomenon 2. prediction-correlation 3. determining causality-causality 4. explanation-why the phenomenon occurs 5. control-being able to manipulate conditions that will cause changes in behavior

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intergroup attitude

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a persons attitude toward a group to which they do not belong

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in-group/out-group bias

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in-group members tend to evaluate and relate to the in-group more favorably than the out-group

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experimental control

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being able to manipulate conditions that will cause changes in a phenomenon

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milgrim experiment

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shocl participants-65% shocked the person to death

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individual differences

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characteristics or qualities of people--important that social psychologists do recognize people have these--this may explain why 35% didn't shock people to death

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interactive relationship between social and personal influences on behavior

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situations may have different effect on different people

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external attributions vs internal attributions

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explain behavior by focusing on factor's in the persons social environment vs explain behavior by focuing on factors within the person

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fundamental attribution error

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tendency for us to underestimate the influence of situational factors and focus on individual factors in explaining other people's behavior

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levels of analysis of social psychology

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interpersonal, group, organizational, community, societal/cultural

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core assumption of social psychology

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people's attitudes and behavior are greatly influenced by situational factors

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common things people list that make them happy

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friends and family, health, money

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Main question in happiness article

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does investing discretionary income in life experiences make people happier than investing in materical posessions

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4 happiness studies

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1. Between subjects-Participants asked to think about an experience or possession purchased in the past month-$100 or more OUTCOME: participants asked to think about an experience indicated in made them happier than those asked to evaluate a material purchase 2. investigating experience vs material possessions in larger sample examining different demographic groups People say experiential purchases make them happier except very low income-authors say they are worried about satisfying basic needs and not worried about whether they are getting more satisfaction from experiences from what little discretionary income they have 3. Lab study: thinking about different possessions and assessed mood/affect -participants asked to remember experinces reported greater happiness than those asked to remember material purchases 4. Lab study: chose between material and experience across 3 conditions (distant past, distant future, near future) chose experinces and indicated mroe happiness with them when adopting distant perspectives--more equal when talking about immediate

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how does being vs having relate to fundamental human needs?

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Mazlow needs—need to have all of your needs met before you can begin to think about the most desirable way to live

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What are the three main causes that the authors list for why experiential experiences make people happier than material purchases?

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Social value Central to one's identity Experiences have more value looking back also..think about experiences more often 1. experinces may be interpreted more and more positively over time 2. experinces are more central to one's identity—experiential people are viewed=identity 3. experiences have greater social value—can foster social relationships and talk about them socially=social value

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strengths and weaknesses of happiness article

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confounds -time spent doing activity -amount of money spent on activity -percentage of income spent on activity

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General findings in happiness article

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-weak relation between money and happiness -despite increases in financial wealth of country, happiness levels have not changed -experiences provide more happiness than material purchases

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Affective forecasting

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deciding how much future decisions will affect you---relates to impact bias--we think that things will effect us a lot more than they actually do

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impact bias

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things will have a longer more enduring impact than they really will and things will matter more than they really do----we actually adapt quite well to almost any situation good things will make us really happy bad things will slay us

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implicit egotism

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people gravitate toward others who resemble them

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personal interventions

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individuals can use psychological knowledge to improve their day-to-day lives

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feeling attracted to someone--situational determinants

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knowing not just anyone will do; you especially want to be with that particular person 1. proxamity 2. familiarity

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proxamity effect

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the tendency for physical nearness to increase interpersonal liking

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environmental spoiling

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the more contact you have with an unpleasant person, the more you will dislike him or her

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primacy effect

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being especially influenced by information that is presented first computer dating study--people were selected to be partners supposedly based on things in common--only predictor of whether they wanted to meet again was physical attractiveness of partner t-shirt study:once you learn to enjoy someones company you can overlook their appearance

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physical attractiveness stereotype

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general expectation that a pysically attractive person has positive qualities--kind, strong, exciting

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matching effect

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when a person prefers a long-term partner who is imilar in good looks to themselves because this reduces the chances of rejection or dissatisfaction

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3 kinds of infant attachment

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secure:quickly soothed when attachment figure returned insecure:anxious/ambivalent:unhappy about being separated and clingy upon return insecure::avoidant: dont care when mother leaves or comes back

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implicit egoism study--participants were more attracted than usual to those who

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1. arbitrary experimental code numbers resembeled their own birthday numbers 2. whose surnames shared letters with their own surnames 3. whose jersey number had been paired , subliminaly, with their own names

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4 types of adult attachment

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secure:(positive of self and others)trusting, comfortable with closeness and interdependence preoccupied:(negative of self, positive of others)needful of closeness, worried about abondonment fearful:(negative of self and others) afraid of rejection, mistrustful, shy dismissing: (positive of self, negative of others)self-reliant, independent, un-interested in intimacy

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adult attachment is a view of both ---

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self and other--secure has this style of attachment and is trusting of others

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do predictors of attraction hold across cultures?

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-influenced by what we are taught to value -attraction is more influenced by culture than gender individualistic: personal successes and accomplishments--people whom others will prize and admire collectivist:people with money and household skills--much more practical

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Evolutionary perspectives--4

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1. similar genes-34% of mate selection can be attributed to having similar genes 2. good symmetry-genetically predisposed to survive development, healthy, good fertile choice 3. hip ratio--ideal hip to waist ratio range less susceptable to disease--women in this range concieve more easily 4. parental investment (benefit the child at a cost to the parent) vs social role theories (This is the principle that men and women behave differently in social situations and take different roles, due to the expectations that society puts upon them (including gender stereotyping). )

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4 major things attraction is influenced by

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1. proxamity 2. familiarity 3. implicit egotism 4. primacy

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attachment is really about

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how one expresses separation distress

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cognitive errors (what and 3 most common)

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errors people make when judging others--fundamental attribution error, belief perseverance, social categorization-ingroup/outgroup

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fundamental attribution error

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tendency people have to focus on personal causes of other peoples behavior and downplay the influence of situational causes

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belief perseverance

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people tend to maintain their initial ideas or beliefs despite exposure to disconfirming evidence

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1 way to reduce belief perseverance

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consider an alternative strategy

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social categorization

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out tendency to classify people into groups based on certain social characteristics

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in-group/out-group bias

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rating your group as more favorable than another group and the individuals in your group as better than the individuals in the other

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reducing ingroup.outgroup bias

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increase interaction between groups common goals

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self-handicapping

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having anticipatory excuses for potential failure by acting in a way that undermines your potential to perform well

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reduce self-handicapping

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recognize it is self-defeating in the long run and even in the short term

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self-serving bias

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-tendency to attribute our positive outcomes to internal causes and our negative outcomes to external causes--take credit for success, but blame failure on external causes

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depressive realism

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despressed people are actually more accurate than nondepressed people at assessing abilities and self-images---most of us are viewing our lives through rose colored glasses

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overjustification effect

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if people have an external reason for their behavior (ie assignment) they may view the behavior as controlled by the external reason rather than see it as intrinsically appealing

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eliminating overjustification

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focus on intrinsic motivations--remind yourself why you are in college, why you are taking the course

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3 major factors in choosing a partner

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proxamity familiarity physical attractiveness

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attachment in childhood vs adulthood

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type of patterns seen in childhood affect the relationships we have as adults

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3 problematic ways of thinking we do to ourselves

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self-serving bias, self-handicapping, overjustification effect

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Potential Limitations of Forgiveness article

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1.Study was correlated not causal-feedback loop or bi-directional 2. is this the best sample-generational issue

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why is health psychology rising in popularity

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- individuals living longer but not free of disease - diseases tend to be preventable ones - high health care costs - dissatisfaction with the biomedical model

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2 major aspects of health psychology--aka how do we make encourage healthy behavior?

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social influence behavioral change how do we persuade people to make changes? when do people usually make lifestyle changes?

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Social influence appeals-2 kinds

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information appeals and fear appeals

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what makes for an effective information appeal?

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credible source, clear message, grab attention, persuasive, memorable, motivate people to take action, perceved similarity with the person giving the message

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Fear appleals--tend to change and recommendation for better fear appeals

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intentions but not behavior -more intense tends to work better -should clearly show that engage in unhealthy behaviors or not engaging in healthy ones will lead to negative health consequences -specific behavioral recommendation -emphasize that people CAN do it -fear appeals work best when the person can have an immediate effect if they take action--20 year old doesn't care about heart disease

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what is health psychology?

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- promote better health habits - prevent illness - the identification of underlying psychological correlates of health - behavioral change - health policy formation

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biomedical model

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old model that saw health and disease as biological mechanisms and illness is completely expalined by biological functioning--health as the absence of disease

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biopsychosocial model

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takes biology, psychology, and social influence into account--not reject biomedical-just realize that this does not lead to a complete understanding

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health promotion

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efforts made to encourage epople to engage in healthy behaviors such as eating healthy, exercising, not smoking, etc

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prevention

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targeting efforts to reduce probability of getting an illness in the first place or to reduce the severity of an illness one it occurs

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3 steps of prevention

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1. primary prevention-aimed toward healthy individuals in order to keep them healthy and avoid risk of getting an illness 2. secondary prevention-people already affected by a medical condition or disorder-goal is to prevent the condition from leading to more severe health consequences-mammogram 3.tertiary prevention-disease or disorder has not been prevented, but efforts made to reduce extent of the disorder's impact on the patient

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social influence

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idea that interaction with other people can lead to changes in our attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior

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persuasion

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specific kind of social influence where a particular message or appeal is used to try to change someone's attitudes or beliefs

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model of windows of vulnerability

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During certain critical periods young people are vulnerable to other social influences (e.g., adolescence, living on own, moving in with partner) influence of parents on health beliefs and behaviors will be important throughout life but, during critical periods young people will be vulnerable to the effects of other important social influences that may expose them to different views ---parents must practice what they preach

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Substance abuse intervention (Spoth et al., 2002) findings--school, school and familt, control

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3 Conditions: School, School + family, Control: What were the results? control: worst school and school+family good on everything except alcohol school+family much better at preventing initiation to alcohol use

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top 3 contributors to weight gain

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1. Genetics (accounts for 40-50% of variance). However, cannot explain rapid rise 2. Environment/Power of the situation (lack of exercise and food consumption) 3. Social Networks: Is this the next biggest contributor?

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social network contribution to obesity study findings

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1. A person's chances of becoming obese increased by 57% if he or she had a friend who became obese in a given interval. 2. Among pairs of adult siblings, if one sibling became obese, the chance that the other would become obese increased by 40% (). 3. If one spouse became obese, the likelihood that the other spouse would become obese increased by 37% (95% CI, 7 to 73). Other factors!! Effects not seen among neighbors Persons of same sex had greater impact- role model studies also show this Smoking and selection did not account for results Social distance appears to be more relevant than geographic distance or local environmental factors

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3 Theories of behavioral change

answer

The Health Belief Model Theory of Planned Behavior Transtheoretical Model

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Health Belief Mode

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1. General Health Values (most people value health) 2. Perceived Susceptibility to Illness (degree to which it can happen to you) 3. Perceived Severity (what are beliefs about consequences?) 4. Expectation of Success (what do we believe about link between habits and health outcomes for example) 5. Self-Efficacy (skills to complete task) 6. Barriers and Benefits (analysis of perceived barriers vs. benefits) 7. Cues to Action (call to take action now)

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Theory of Planned Behavior

answer

attitudes toward behavior social norms about behavior perceived behavioral control these three translate into an intention which then translates into an aciton

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Transtheorectical Model

answer

1. Precontemplation: Individual has no intention of changing. 2. Contemplation: Individual recognizes the problem and is seriously thinking about changing. 3. Preparation for Action: Individual recognizes the problem and intends to change the behavior within the next month. 4. Action: Individual has enacted consistent behavior change (i.e., consistent exercise) for less than six months. 5. Maintenance: Individual maintains new behavior for six months or more.

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transtheoretical model of stress

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stressor->appraisal->coping->health outcome coping-problem focused--solve the actual problem or emotion focused-deal with emotions related to the stressor

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3 characteristics that tend to make events seem more stressful

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1. negative event 2. unpredictable or uncontrollable events 3. vague or undefined

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Social support and 5 types

answer

resources we get form other people--having social support can decrease stress reaction emotional support-show us love, empathy esteem support-let us know we are valued for our personal qualities informational support-getting information and feedback instrumental support-practical help-lend money, give rides network support-being a member in a group

question

Main points from seminar article 3--health behavior

answer

asymmetically paternalistic--works--people choose healthy when it is conveignant more information does not necessarily lead to better choices Not rational decision-makers Need to get people to want to eat healthier Do little steps matter? Trickery- can we use it for the better?

question

Taking sides key pro points

answer

1. Clearly a serious issue (e.g., 147 billion in costs) 2. Public issue because of costs 3. Taxing works (especially for those who are heavy) 4. Can use revenue for programs to increase education and reduce costs of healthy food 5. Individual interventions do not work- need government intervention!

question

taking sides key con points

answer

Concede that it is an issue- the debate is about how to solve the issue Taxes do not work (we eat based on convenience-seminar article and other empirical support) Regressive (unfair) tax Hassle and perhaps impossible to classify "unhealthy" foods Sends wrong message- individuals need to take responsibility and not demonize certain foods

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Forgiveness article--groups?

answer

bosnian muslims and serbs--serbians committed many crimes against muslims-1992-1995

question

percieved out-group homogenity and forgiveness

answer

when we dont See the other group as individual people and not just stereotyping them all as a group; NOT doing this can aid forgiveness as the person may realize that the other group is not all the same and only some of them are at fault

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what variables were they looking at in the forgiveness article? what things predicted more forgiveness?

answer

1. Quality of contact 2. superordinate identification 3. out-group heterogeneity 4. out-group trust 5. empathy 6. intergroup forgiveness 6. social distance

question

overall take home point from morality article about political views

answer

a message of tolerance and understand---Main message in haidt's argument-for academics to have more tolerance---all journal articles focused on harm and care—need moral diversity in academics just as much as we need other diversity

question

5 psychological foundations of morailty and which apply to conservatives and liberals

answer

Group 1: Harm/Care Group 2: Fairness/Reciprocity Group 3: Ingroup/loyalty Group 4: Authority/respect Group 5: Purity/sanctity Liberals:first 2 Conservatives: all 5

question

3 ethics of morality and how 5 psychological foundations of morality fit these

answer

autonomy-hair/care and fairness/reciprocity community-ingroup/loyalty and authority/respect divinity-purity/sanctity

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moral judgements vs moral reasoning vs moral intuition

answer

Moral judgements: evaluations (good vs. bad) made of a moral situation respect to obligatory virtues held by a culture. Moral reasoning: weighting costs and benefits of a moral decision in order to reach moral judgement. Moral intuition: quick emotional response to a moral situation judgment, solution, or conclusion appears suddenly & effortlessly and without awareness of the mental processes that led to the outcome

question

social intuitionist model (morality seminar)

answer

Moral judgment is caused by quick moral intuitions, and is followed (when needed), by slow, ex-post facto moral reasoning.

question

rationalist model (morality seminar)

answer

moral judgements are caused by moral reasoning

question

compare and contrast social intuitionist and rationalist

answer

Rationalist: moral judgements are caused by moral reasoning--rationalize BEFORE decision is made Social Intuitionist: Moral intuitions/emotions come first and directly cause moral judgements Agree that people have emotions/intuitions, people engage in reasoning, and people influence one another

question

4 steps in scientific process-wheel-4 components

answer

1. Observation 2. theory development 3. development of specific hypothesis 4. hypothesis testing

question

difference between deduction and induction

answer

Induction-(left) inferring general principles from observing specific instances (specific ->general). Induction falls between observation and theory development. Specific observations are used to induce general hypotheses and propositions Deduction- (right) deriving specific hypothesis from the general hypothesis and propositions of a theory (general specific). Deduction falls between theory development and development of specific hypotheses. General hypotheses and propositions are used to deduce specific hypotheses that can be tested

question

4 characteristics of theory development

answer

Scope (# of diff human behaviors), Range (specific group of people or all humans), Testability (can be refuted or disproved), Parsimony (fewest # and simplest # of explanations)

question

3 functions of theory

answer

Organization (pattern that underlies and connects), Direction (related to hypothesis testing- provides guidance for postulates), Intervention (prescribes actions that prevent occurrence)

question

3 main situations that produce cognitive dissonance

answer

1. Post-decisional: dissonance almost always exists after a decision has been made between 2 more more alternatives (low ball technique) 2. Effort Dissonance (place a greater value on a result that demanded more effort) 3. Insufficient justification (internally justify behavior (tell a lie for $1 or $20)

question

ways to reduce dissonance

answer

Ways to reduce dissonance: Change one or more of the dissonant cognitions, add new cognitions to make existing cognitions consistent, downplay importance of dissonant cognitions

question

conditions for group think to occur

answer

high group cohesiveness, group structure problems, and a high pressure crisis situation

question

negative outcomes of group think

answer

illusion of invulnerability, stereotyped view of out-groups, conformity pressure, illusion of unanimity

question

symptoms of group think

answer

POOR DECISION MAKING caused by 1. failure to see alternative outcomes 2. failure to examine risks of preferred choice

question

3 properties of applied social psych scientific method

answer

Systematic Empiricism: We structure our studies so that we can draw conclusions Public Verification: Other people should be able to replicate our studies Solvable Problems: Has to be a question that can be answered scientifically

question

hypothetical constructs

answer

observable collection of outcomes---ex. intelligence

question

operational definition

answer

makes a hypothetical constructs empirical enables aplication of scietific method =IQ score is operational definition of intelligence

question

3 goals of behavioral research

answer

describe behavior predict behavior explain behavior

question

4 experimental designs for behavioral research

answer

experimental-"low balling" quasi-experimental-program evaluation descriptive-public opinion polls correlational-predicting use of birth control with toasters

question

steps in scientific process/circle

answer

OBSERVATIONS/GENERALIZATIONS->induction->THEORY DEVELOPMENT->deduction->SPECIFIC HYPOTHEIS->hypothesis testing (DATA)

question

kitty genovese case

answer

bystander effect

question

ethics

answer

espect for the dignity of the participants, minimization of harm, reduction of risk to participant, informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, minimal use of deception

question

4 situational determinants of attractions

answer

proxamity, familiarity, implicit egotism, primacy

question

stress appraisal vs coping

answer

judgement of how to respond to the stressor vs thoughts feelings and behavior people use to try to reduce stress--problem or emotion focused

question

fear-victimization paradox

answer

The finding that sometimes the people who are most fearful are actually the least likely to be victimized

question

pros and cons of quasi experimental design

answer

Advantages? Useful when experiments are impractical More external validity Less effort because use pre-established groups Disadvantages? Lack of random assignment makes it difficult to rule out potential confounds No cause/effect conclusions More threats to internal validity

question

3 essential properties of a well designed experiment

answer

Must vary at least one IV Must randomly assign participants to conditions Must control extraneous variables

question

3 types of IVs--and must have 2 or more?

answer

Environmental (e.g., room lighting) Instructional (e.g., third party forgiveness) Invasive (e.g., alcohol studies) Levels

question

3 types of vairiance and how to control them to make a good experiment

answer

maximize treatment variance, eliminate confounds(systematic), minimize error variance (unsystematic)

question

to increase internal validity

answer

Use similar participants to reduce selection effects Perform research in controlled lab setting to avoid effects of extraneous variables

question

if you increase internal validity you may

answer

Limits the degree to which the results can be generalized to other people Limits degree to which results can be generalized to real-life settings

question

5 threats to internal validity

answer

Biased assignment, differential attrition, history, maturation, design counfounds 1. Biased assignment-differences between treatment and control groups at start 2. Differential attrition-specific groups of people may be more likely to drop out 3. History-events other than treatment occuring at same time 4. Maturation-participant change over time 5. Design confounds

question

3 researcher and participant biases

answer

1. Experimenter Expectancy Effects (Rosenthal effect) 2. Demand Characteristics--participants unconsciously change behavior to act how they think you want them to (Hawthorne effect) 3. Placebo Effects

question

error variance and ways to reduce

answer

unsystematic difference among participants ex. individual differences -mood of individual homogeneous sample, treat all participants the same, hold lab conditions constant, standardize all research procedures, use reliable research procedures

question

3 types of measures

answer

observational self-report physiological (observational)

question

realiability and 3 types

answer

consistency of a test 1. test-retest-consistency of participant's responses over time 2. inter-item-degree of consistency among the items split-half reliability-If you divide the items of a test in half, would both halves have the same score? 3. inter-rater-consistency among two or more researchers

question

cronbachs alpha is a measure of

answer

inter-item reliability

question

2 ways to assess inter-rate reliability

answer

percentage of times agreed correlate rating if on a scale

question

4 ways in increase reliability

answer

1. Make sure conditions of measurement are standardized 2. Pilot test and/or make sure questions are clear 3. If behavior is observed train the observers 4. Enter/code data correctly

question

sources of measurement error

answer

1. transient states-anxiety 2. stable attributes-low motivation, low intelligence 3. situational factors-treatment of participants 4. the measure-bad questions 5. coding errors-miscounting

question

scales of measurement

answer

nominal ordinal interval ratio

question

intervention

answer

procedure intended to influence the behavior of people with the purpose of improving their functioning with respect to social or practical problem

question

4 steps of intervention

answer

1. Identifying the problem: Existence and severity Formal needs assessment: Gauges availability of existing programs, gaps in service, and possible barriers 2. Arriving at a Solution: Determine how best to address problem Make distinction between perpetrating and precipitating factors 3. Set Goals and Design Make sure activities meet goals and objectives Logic model - what makes for a good logic model? 4. Implementation Make sure you can evaluate it!

question

perpetrating vs precipitating factors

answer

perpetrating-Factors or conditions that maintain the disabling symptoms in an individual. precipitating factors-Factors that causes or triggers the onset of a disorder, illness, accident, or behavioural response.

question

key reasons for program evaluation in an intervention

answer

1. the development and testing of theories 2. program development 3. ethics 4. financial accountability

question

ways an experimenter can bias a survey question

answer

double-barreled questions, loaded questions, use complicated terminology

question

3 reason for intervention program failure

answer

Inadequate theoretical rational Might not be implemented as designed Reactance: People will react against influence that threatens freedom incompatibility between design and cultural context

question

types of self-report

answer

cognitive, affective, behavioral

question

subject variables

answer

characterisics a participant has before going into an experiment

question

advantages of within subjects design

answer

more power and less participants needed---subject should be the same at time 1 and time 2

question

order effects of within subjects design

answer

What are "practice effects", "Fatigue effects", "sensitization", "carry over effects"

question

psychometrics

answer

the study of psychological measurement

question

relationship of variance and realibility in text

answer

Reliability= True score variance/total variance

question

test bias

answer

when a particular measure is not valid for everyone who takes the test

question

5 ways to minimize error variance

answer

1. What are homogeneous sample 2. treat all participants the same 3. hold lab conditions constant 4. standardize all research procedures 5. use reliable research procedures

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